Relationship Between Personality, Intelligence and Academia

Relationship Between Personality, Intelligence and Academia Alexandra Lamb The Relationship between Conscientiousness, Intellectual Ability, and Academic Performance in an Undergraduate Psychology Cohort Abstract This report examines the relationship between intellectual ability, conscientiousness and academic achievement. Psychology Students studying at the University of Adelaide (N=50) completed online versions of the OCEANIC (Schulze Roberts, 2006) and Advanced Progressive Matrices (APM; Bors Stokes, 1998). Results showed that there was a slight positive association between intellectual ability and academic performance, a slight positive association between conscientiousness and academic achievement and effectively no relationship between conscientiousness and intellectual ability. The study shows that personality traits can be promising predictors of academic achievement and thus may be useful in student development and admission systems. Introduction The relationships between personality traits, intellectual ability and academic performance have long been explored. These relationships were first used, in ancient times, for selecting civil servants in the Middle East, India and China to its current role as the driver of advanced economics (Poropat, 2011). Much of the research done in the past has been linked to theoretical and statistical reviews of the role of personality. One of the earliest applications of personality trait assessment was the prediction of academic performance (Poropat, 2009). This report attempts to further examine the relationship between personality traits, intellectual ability and academic performance in particular, conscientiousness and intellectual ability and their relationship with academic performance. Intelligence is one of the most effective empirical predictors of academic performance (Poropat, 2009). Nothing has changed since the thirties when it was suggested that one of the most important factors in academic achievement is intelligence. Intelligence is the most documented variable as a predictor of cognitive performance and in past research has shown a positive association with academic success (Busato Prins Elshout, Hamaker, 2000). In 2000 Busato conducted a study in which intellectual ability was compared to academic performance over three years. Intellectual ability was positively associated with academic achievement after one year and after three year, which is consistent with earlier studies. However, intelligence is not the only predictor of academic performance. In later research, Kappe and Flier (2012) suggested that conscientiousness, a personality trait that describes impulse control and self-regulation of behaviour (Ivcevic Brackett, 2014), is the best predicto r of academic achievement explaining five times as much variance in GPA (used to measure academic performance) as does intelligence. Earlier studies by Conard (2006) also showed positive bivariate correlations between conscientiousness and academic achievement. Whilst both intellectual ability and consciousness can predict academic performance, Poropat (2009) suggested that conscientiousness is largely independent of general intelligence. Chamorro-Remuzic, Furnham and Moutafi conducted a study in 2004 as a precursor to Poropat’s research in which they found a significant negative association between conscientiousness and two intelligence tests. They suggested that this was consistent with the idea that conscientiousness might partly develop as a compensation for low intellectual level and that high intelligent individuals may not need to engage in systematic, organised and dutiful study or work habits (Chamorro-Remuzic, Furnham, Moutafi, 2004). The goals presented above guided this study, thus this report will further examine the relationships between intellectual ability, personality traits and academic achievement as explored above, focussing on three hypotheses: Hypothesis 1, there will be a significant positive relationship between intellectual ability and academic performance; Hypothesis 2, there will be a significant positive relationship between the personality trait conscientiousness and academic performance and; Hypothesis 3, there will be a significant negative relationship between conscientiousness and intellectual ability. Method Participants The participants were 50 first-year Psychology students studying at the University of Adelaide. The participants took part in the study as part of an assessment task. Materials The OCEANIC (Schulze Roberts, 2006) was employed to measure the Big Five personality traits. Intellectual ability was measured as performance on the short form of the Raven’s Advanced Progressive Matrices (APM; Bors Stokes, 1998). Academic performance was operationalized as the participants’ final grade for the previous semester’s Psychology course. Procedure The participants were instructed to complete online versions of the OCEANIC and Advanced Progressive Matrices. They were free to perform the tasks wherever they chose, but were advised to try to complete the tasks in a quiet, distraction-free environment. The participants were instructed not to collaborate with anyone else on the tasks. There was no time limit placed upon the tasks, but it was stipulated that they had to be completed within a single test session. Results In Table 1, the means and standard deviations for the Big Five Personality traits (Openness, Conscientiousness. Extraversion, Agreeableness and Neuroticism), Intellectual ability (Raven’s APM), and Academic Performance are displayed. In Table 2, the Correlation Coefficients for the variables associated with the three hypotheses are shown (Raven’s APM and Final Grade, Conscientiousness and Final Grade, Conscientiousness and Raven’s APM). In Table 3, the r2-values for the variables associated with the three hypotheses are shown (Raven’s APM and Final Grade, Conscientiousness and Final Grade, Conscientiousness and Raven’s APM). Table 1. Means and standard deviations for the Big Five personality traits, Intellectual Ability (Raven’s APM), and Academic Performance Table 2. Correlation Coefficients for Raven’s APM, Conscientiousness and Final Grade. Table 3. r2 values for Raven’s APM, Conscientiousness and Final Grade. Hypothesis 1: There will be a significant positive relationship between intellectual ability and academic performance. Figure 1. The relationship between Raven’s APM and Final grade. According to Hypothesis 1, a significant positive relationship was expected between intellectual ability and academic performance. As shown in Figure 1, a quantitative analysis (Pearson’s correlation coefficient) indicated that there was a weak-moderate, positive relationship between Raven’s APM and final grade (r = 0.32), and that this relationship was statistically significant (p=0.02). Those who scored high in the Raven’s APM (M=7.8, SD=2.96), which operationalised intellectual ability, tended to score high in their final grade (M=69.66, SD=14.05), which operationalised academic performance. This provided qualitative support for the hypothesis. Hypothesis 2: there will be a significant positive relationship between the personality trait conscientiousness and academic performance. Figure 2. The relationship between conscientiousness and final grade. According to Hypothesis 2, a significant positive relationship was expected between the personality trait conscientiousness (M=36.58, SD=6.98) and academic performance (M=69.66, SD=14.05). As shown in Figure 2, a quantitative analysis (Pearson’s correlation coefficient) there was a weak-moderate, positive relationship between conscientiousness and final grade (r=0.39), and that this relationship was statistically significant (p=0.01). Those with high conscientiousness (M=36.58, SD=6.98) tended to score high in their final grade (M=69.66, SD=14.05), which operationalised academic performance. This provided qualitative support for the hypothesis. Hypothesis 3: there will be a significant negative relationship between conscientiousness and intellectual ability. Figure 3. The relationship between conscientiousness and Raven’s APM. According to Hypothesis 3, a significant negative relationship was expected between conscientiousness and intellectual ability. As shown in Figure 3, a quantitative analysis (Pearson’s correlation coefficient) indicated that there was an extremely weak, but effectively no negative relationship between conscientiousness and Raven’s RPM (r=-0.02), and that this relationship was not statistically significant (p>0.89). Those with high conscientiousness (M=36.58, SD= 6.98) did not consistently score high or low in Raven’s APM (M=7.8, SD=2.96), which operationalised intellectual ability. This did not provide support for the hypothesis. Discussion The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between personality traits, intellectual ability and academic performance. Adding information, specifically relating to the relationships between intellectual ability and academic performance; Conscientiousness and academic achievement and; Conscientiousness and intellectual ability. According to the correlational analysis, intellectual ability was positively associated with academic performance. This is in accordance with the literature cited in the introduction (Poropat 2009, Busato et al. 2000). However this correlation was smaller than the correlation between personality trait conscientiousness and academic ability, reiterating research by Conard (2006) in the introduction. The r2 values for both these relationships, academic achievement and intellectual ability (r2 =0.10) and conscientiousness and academic ability (r2 =0.15), suggest that only 1% of the variability in academic achievement can be explained by intellectual ability and only 1.5% of the variation in academic achievement can be explained by conscientiousness. This suggests that there are other factors that play an important role in the variation of academic achievement. The association between conscientiousness and academic performance was also positive, suggesting that conscientiousness might have a bigger impact on academic performance than intellectual ability, which is consistent with the cited researchers Kappe and Flier (2012). The correlational research presented a very slightly negative, but effectively no association between conscientiousness and intellectual ability this does not support the relationship suggested by Chamorro-Remuzic, Furnham and Moutafi (2004) whose research highlighted a significant negative relationship between conscientiousness and intellectual ability. The r2 value for this relationship (r2 =0) suggests that 0% of the variance in intellectual ability can be explained by conscientiousness. A lesson that may be taken from this study is that whilst intellectual ability is a positive predictor of academic performance, students are also able to perform well academically if they are willing to work hard and conscientiously. Another practical perspective of the research is that intelligence is probably the most used selection criteria for entrance to tertiary education. However the findings within this study suggesting that Conscientiousness is just as good or potentially a better predictor of academic performance suggests another practical selection tool, provided it can be accurately and validly assessed. (Poropat, 2009) However, conscientiousness creates a greater chance of faking over an intelligence test. There are a number of limitations to this study. Firstly, there is a restriction of range, given it was only first year psychology students surveyed. A bivariate normal relationship may exist for the entire population whereas this relationship may not be evident for all sub-populations (i.e. Psychology students). Or otherwise, what appears to be a linear relationship for a sub-population could actually be a curvilinear relationship for the entire population (Haslam McGarty, 2014). This means the relationships found by doing the quantitative analysis may not be a representation of the wider population. It would be beneficial to conduct a meta-analysis on students of different disciplines and potentially international students to find out how generalisable the results are. The sample size of 50 participants is also small. It is unlikely to reflect the population adequately. Whilst surveys are easy to develop, cost-effective and relatively easy to administer, there are a number of limi tations associated with survey-based research. Researcher’s personal bias and idiosyncrasies are more influential in qualitative research; the knowledge of the study might also influence the participants’ responses. That is, respondents may feel encouraged to provide inaccurate and dishonest answers. Participants may interpret the survey questions and answer options differently and data errors caused by non-responses (i.e the number of participants who chose to respond to the survey as opposed to those that chose not to) may also affect the results. References Bors, D. A. Stokes, T. L. (1998). Raven’s advanced progressive matrices: Norms for first-year university students and the development of a short form. Education and Psychological Measurement, 58, 382-398 Schulze, R. Roberts, R. D. (2006). Assessing the Big Five: Development and validation of the Openness Conscientiousness Extraversion Agreeableness Neuroticism Index Condensed (OCEANIC). Zeitschrift fur Psychologie, 214, 133-14 Chamorro-Remuzic, T. Furnham, A. Moutafi, J. (2004). The relationship between estimated and psychometric personality and intelligence scores. Journal of Research in Personality, 38, 505-513. Conard, M. A. (2006). Aptitude is not enough: How personality and behaviour predict academic performance. Journal of Research in Personality, 40, 339-346. Ivcevic, Z. Brackett, M. (2014). Predicting school success: Comparing Conscientiousness, Grit, and Emotion Regulation Ability. Journal of Research in Personality, 52, 29-36. Kappe, R. Flier, H. (2012). Predicting academic success in higher education: what’s more important than being smart? European Journal of Psychology of Education, 27, 605-619. Busato, V. V. Prins, F. J. Elshout, J. J. Hamaker, C. (2000). Intellectual ability, learning style, personality, achievement motivation and academic success of psychology students in higher education. Personality and Individual Differences, 29, 1057-1068. Poropat, A. E. (2009). A Meta-Analysis of the Five-Factor Model of Personality and Academic Performance. Psychological Bulletin, 135, 322-338. Poropat, A. E. (2011). The Eysenckian personality factors and their correlations with academic performance. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 81, 41-58. Haslam, S. A. McGarty, C. (2014). Research Methods and Statistics in Psychology. Great Britain: SAGE Productions Inc.

Our Fluid English Language Essay

It is generally known that as time goes on, most things tend to change, evolve and grow. This could be said about a long list of thing, including humans, music, fashion, technology and many more. But what isn’t commonly thought about is the evolution of language; more specifically the English Language. Being one of the most spoken and rapidly learned language worldwide, one might ponder the evolution of the it and how the English language came to be. Spoken today is called Modern English, but this language took hundreds of years to be developed into from its Greek, Latin, German, Russian and other European roots. To further understand the fluidity of the English language, a Catholic prayer that was once written in Anglo-Saxon or Old English is rewritten in Middle English and Early Modern English. Through these stepping stones of the English language, one could analyze the difference in letter symbols, punctuation, and pronunciation. At first glance, the Old English version seems to be in a completely different language. One would never believe that the English we speak today derived from Old English. But as one tries to decipher the words and the passage at hand, few words became certain to be derived from Old English. Although most are not Catholic and wouldn’t know this as a religious passage, the major clue was the capitalization of the first word: father. Although spelled â€Å"Faeder† in Old English, it was easy to assume that it was a prayer from prior knowledge about the Catholics reference to God as Father. Not only that, â€Å"Faeder† and â€Å"Father† have similar pronunciation and many of the same letters. Some words seem familiar through context clues such as â€Å"willa† and â€Å"will†, â€Å"becume† and â€Å"become†, and â€Å"forgyf† and â€Å"forgive†. However, there are words that are completely unfamiliar and are unused in Modern English such as â€Å"gedaeghwamlican†, â€Å"heofonum†, and â€Å"gyltendum†. This proves to show that has time goes on, words and symbols begin to change, words begin to be spoken in different sounds, and grammar starts to shift away from its original roots. From the Old English and the Middle English translations, grammar seems to change the most and is the most noticeable. Similar to how English is spoken today, the first line of the Middle English translated prayer starts off as  Ã¢â‚¬Å"Oure fadir,† which is very similar to the Modern English â€Å"Our Father.† But in the Old English version, the prayer starts as â€Å"Faeder ure.† In many languages like Spanish and Latin, verbs and possessors are generally put in front of the possessive, unlike Middle and Modern English. As seen in the Old English version, father comes before â€Å"ure† or our. This analyzation displays the roots of English and how the language evolves and eventually strays from its origin. Also seen clearly in the Middle English version of the Catholic prayer, words seem closer to the Modern English spoken today, although some symbols and spellings reveal its true age. More words become recognizable such as â€Å"kyngdom† to kingdom, and â€Å"heuene† to heaven. These words show how over time, words begin to shift and change, although it started as something else. A symbol that stays constant from Old English on to Middle English is a letter close to â€Å"p†. This symbol is pronounced a â€Å"th† sound. Although this symbol is replaced with the letter â€Å"t† and â€Å"h† in Modern English, the words such as â€Å"pi† and â€Å"pat† are equivalent to the Early Modern English words â€Å"thy† and â€Å"that†. This different usage of symbols but same sounds exemplifies the change in letter themselves, but not the sound it once came from. The Middle English truly shows the steps it took to get from Ol d English to Early Modern English. When we read the Early Modern English of this Catholic prayer, we can understand it clearly, though words that are used in the prayer are not used in our daily vocabulary and writing. Words such as thy, and art, which has a different meaning from Modern English, are not used and are rarely seen in modern writing explosions. Early Modern English has been changed and developed so dramatically that people don’t talk the way the prayer goes. The proof that shows how fluid English is by the usage of slang. Just as spelling, pronunciation and grammar of words and sentences changed from the three stepping stones of English evolution, modern English words are being condensed and meaning of words change. The evolution of the English language doesn’t stop with us. Although there are three stepping stones of the English language, in the future there is a  possibility that a New English will emerge. Just as it did over the course of hundreds of years, the English language will continue to evolve and change. Meanings will alter and spelling will change. A hundred years from now, Old English will seem to be a language in the past.

The Effects Of Social Media On Psychology - 2508 Words

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The Premature Birth Of Pregnancy - 1452 Words

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The Influence and the Role of the Jewish Community in...

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Show how you respond to Austen’s presentation of balls and other social events in Emma Free Essays

‘It may be possible to do without dancing entirely. Instances have been known of young people passing many, many months successively without being at any ball of any description, and no material injury accrue either to body or mind: – but when a beginning is made – when the felicities of rapid motion have once been, though slightly felt – it must be a very heavy set that does not ask for more.’ Using the quotation as a starting point show how you respond to Austen’s presentation of balls and other social events in Emma. We will write a custom essay sample on Show how you respond to Austen’s presentation of balls and other social events in Emma or any similar topic only for you Order Now The above quotation put in simple terms connotes socializing to not be essential for survival yet once experienced, addictions can be produced. This is implied within Jane Austen’s Emma as hinted by social events presentation and their significance. Suggestions of such views display human development by the mistakes made within society to encourage moral growth and wisdom. The central focus upon balls and social pursuits indicates the triviality of the upper classes. Austen’s satirical tone throughout the novel exemplifies the hierarchy of the eighteenth nineteenth century, while ridiculing their concerns. The author has illustrated a further emphasis by concentrating particularly on Emma’s development and need for social awareness as progressed through the various social affairs. The Weston’s Christmas party acts as an introductory occasion for the readers to establish a hierarchy, as well as Emma’s importance within the Highbury society. The Woodhouses are treated to be at the centre of attention as illustrated by the great fuss created for â€Å"poor Mr. Woodhouse† due to the falling of snow. By making such characters much pleased with them, they begin to believe they are and feel much more superior. This permits Emma in her match making schemes of ultimately feeling a strong love interest among Mr. Elton and Harriet Smith. Emma’s confidence is quilted by the safety of her fathers smothering and her lack of awareness. This meddling leads to devastating consequences, which may be seen through the contrasting behaviour contained in private and public atmospheres. A faà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ade of etiquette is created publicly to portray perfectionism of characters friendly decorum. Mr. Weston kindly criticizes Emma while she politely â€Å"listened† and â€Å"coolly† replies. Emma needs to preserve her good manners in a situation like this as not cause any damage to her status. Conversely, when Emma and Mr. Elton are alone in the carriage, returning home, the change in conduct insights readers to the true colours of the character concerned. Previously, Mr. Elton seemed â€Å"so anxious for† Emma, demonstrating agitating behaviour, explaining the true exposition of Mr. Elton’s â€Å"pretence of being in love with her†. His obnoxious behaviour screened to Emma and the readers reflects his snobbery, as he believes â€Å"everybody has their level†, as well as degrading his respect. The significance of this event adds to the background of future events and creates a build up. Emma looks forward to a night of being admired at the Coles dinner party but clear differing levels of accomplishment with the â€Å"superior† Jane Fairfax prevent this, as well as distinguishing a sense of competition between the two characters. One major accomplishment, the art of piano playing, may be regarded as a form of battle ground among Emma and Jane. Jane’s advancement clearly initiates much threat for Emma as her attentions are overtaken. Nevertheless due to social expectations of the formal times, Emma is required to be friendly towards poorer, low class woman such as Miss Fairfax. This allows others to publicly view Emma’s character to be of a good image. The use of falseness and pretences supports the idea of conformist public behaviour through superficial mannerisms of always â€Å"smiling†. Ironically, the narrative reveals much deeper thoughts of Emma privately whilst creating comedy though the anticipation of her reactions which â€Å"sh e never could attempt to conceal.† However her opinion of Jane is not openly expressed but slyly gossiped with Frank who joins in, yet continuously is â€Å"glancing towards Miss Fairfax.† The divisions of social classing prevent Frank from freely associating himself with Jane who he is secretly engaged with. This becomes evident alongside the social gatherings, suggesting secrets codes of honour to carry out, by enforcing heavy use of faà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ades in friendships among Emma, Frank and Jane. False pretences are deepened within the society of Highbury as immediately reflected through Emma holding a dinner party for Mrs. Elton, a woman she can not stand. During this gathering much commotion is taken up by party guests, predominantly by Mr. Knightely, about Jane’s â€Å"venture.† Austen can be seen to be ridiculing society as characters take much interest upon a minority issue of visiting the post office. Jane shows a â€Å"little blush† of running â€Å"such risks† while reserving her manners regardless to the invasion of her privacy. Consequently the time period within the novel compels Jane’s consistence and Mr. Knightley’s courtesy to be purely based upon concern for her health. Adoptions of significance still withstands similar to the previous events, and allow development of future plots such as the suspicion formed upon Miss. Fairfax’s behaviour. The great Crown Inn Ball had been postponed several times creating much enthusiasm and excitement for the people of Highbury. This is an indication of the emptiness of their lives. Being the first formal social gathering due to Mrs. Elton’s arrival, social codes would advocate her to have central focus. This angers Emma as â€Å"her taste was not the only taste which† was to be depended upon. Nevertheless Emma masks her true judgement by appearing to appeal to all those around her. Dancing was seen as a metaphor of courtship as Emma encounters this â€Å"flirtation between her and her partner† Frank, others may view them as having a more intimate relationship. Mr. Knightley breaks this code as he â€Å"takes pity on† Harriet to dance, after being embarrassed by Mr. Elton. It is suggestive to surrounding party members of a love connection between Harriet and Mr. Knightley. This is highly contradictory as it was not expectant of someone with Knightley’s class and status to degrade down to Miss Smith’s level. On the contrary, readers are at an advantage of having an insight upon the text as they know Mr. Knightley’s behaviour is due to his chivalrous good natured attitude which compels him to be considerate of everyone around him. This comedic approach stimulates Austen to simultaneously mock and uphold social codes. The interaction between Knightley and Harriet reveals that broken social codes lead to chaos and confusion, as dis played further in the text by Emma’s confusion and â€Å"terror† over Harriet having feelings for Mr. Knightley. The faà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ade of etiquette breaks down vigorously at Box hill, partially as Emma now expresses her thoughts while forgetting her manners. The scene has been set in a very elegant atmosphere â€Å"in favour of a pleasant party† with a â€Å"burst of admiration.† All characters engage in a game for amusement and Emma faces a sudden outbreak which she â€Å"could not resist† towards Miss Bates. The oversight of her politeness and â€Å"mock ceremony of her manners† prevent immediate meaning being obtained. Only until Knightley’s â€Å"remonstrance† does Emma realise the impact of her appalling behaviour being in the need of amendment. The idea of Emma acting in such a way in public creates a barrier for her not to be able to undo her actions, whereas if she spoke in private to say Harriet she could have easily justifyed herself. Whether Emma’ change was based upon her becoming more self aware or the fact she upset Mr Knightley is open to personal judgement. It could be portrayed that the series of progressively emotional social events lead Emma to realise much more about herself and those around her. By learning from her mistakes she was able to mature and become more purely and truly accepted as a superior of society. Controversially, Emma begins to realise she has feelings for â€Å"my [meaning Emma’s] Mr. Knightley† and therefore cannot go about upsetting him as this tarnishes his vision of her. Her change therefore would be due to selfish terms. In regard of all this, Emma does change herself and correct her faults. The destruction of polite faà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ade works as an incentive to compel Emma in re-evaluating her misconduct and to reform. The consecutive chapter illustrates Emma’s embracement of self realisation, after the eventful picnic, as Mr. Knightley’s disapproval deeply hurts her. Her â€Å"confidence [had] told her so† that she â€Å"had often been remiss.† After the Box Hill incident, Emma did not want others to consider her â€Å"without a heart† and â€Å"so unfeeling towards [her] father.† Emma’s â€Å"completely misspent† morning obliged her to recollect herself and no longer interfere. By directly paying a visit to Miss. Bates, she begins the journey of self correction. This is further illustrated as Emma talks about Jane with genuine feeling and interest in spite of Jane’s abrupt and extra reserved behaviour. Emma learns, with the help of Mr. Knightley’s finger pointing, that she needs to concentrate on her own thoughts and actions rather than those around her. The limited use of action throughout the novel constructs social occasions to be at the focal point of the plot. Consistently, this reflects the artificialities of Austen’s world which she wanted the reader to pick up upon. By exposing society’s hypocrisy, due to the show of gestures, the satire acts a comedic tool for readers. Even though Emma’s faults are chiefly stressed upon; the story reveals faults in other characterisations such as Mrs. Elton, Frank and Mr. Woodhouse. I feel the idea of concentrating heavily on, what would be considered by the modern reader, small concerns; Austen specifies the consequences of falling out of traditional practice. The juxtaposition of such problematic proceedings, ending with a minute ounce of happiness for Emma, makes the novel unique and intensifies the effect. Nevertheless the moral message overrides such views to allow the reader to learn from the mistakes of characters and the importance of maintaining a balance. This allows progression of readers to improve themselves and become more self-aware also. Finally, the use of misconception and confusion adds to the ironic use of satire to amuse spectators. How to cite Show how you respond to Austen’s presentation of balls and other social events in Emma, Papers

Language Change free essay sample

Theorists such as David Crystal have taken an open-minded approach to such change, explaining that â€Å"there is no predictable direction for the changes that are taking place. They are just that: changes. Not changes for the better; nor changes for the worse; just changes, sometimes going one way, sometimes another. † This statement articulates the prescriptivist view that language is an organic part of life which evolves and grows to suit the needs of its contextual time, just as living organisms do. Texts I and J show a distinct journey of change in the English lexicon between 1878 and 1965, ranging from graphological features through to the individual lexical choices and even the ways in which the audience of each of the texts is addressed. In exploring these texts, conclusions will be drawn as to the extent of the change that language has undergone, and what the causes, and indeed the impacts of these changes may have been. One of the most notable differences between these texts is their graphological presentation. Text I is composed in an expressly simple way, using a serif typeface which was likely to have been produced on a printing press, given that the text itself appears to have jagged edges, implying that ink had been applied to a block or stamp in order to produce the text something uncommon to contemporary means of printing. It is also interesting to note the complete lack of images, and the justified alignment of the text throughout. The text is not split up at all, other than into paragraphs and here is no use of italics or bold text at any point in the text. Text J, conversely, uses a graphologically complex structure, with an image to text ratio of around 1:1. Three blocks of text are accompanied by three images of men and women together, two of which display a dance scene and the last of which displays the onset of intimacy the desired goal of the text which was written as an instructional piece, seemingly aimed at the female gender. The images supplied are directly photograph, rather than illustrations, representing the development of technology and the availability of photography cameras and digital arrangement of photographs and text to create such a publication. Text J also makes use of italicisation in order to emphasise the lexical items â€Å"those† and â€Å"your. † The use of the lexical item â€Å"those† here is a deictic expression, implying a shared pragmatic and contextual knowledge between the producer and the reader of the text. This is echoed throughout the text, where an informal and friendly tone is adopted throughout. This is confirmed by the consistent application of elision, forming contractions of lexis such as â€Å"do not† to become â€Å"don’t†, showing the adoption of a primarily informal register. The method of address can be considered in terms of Norman Fairclough’s theory of synthetic personalisation, where first person pronouns are used to directly address the reader and indicate a kind of relationship between the writer and reader, where some shared understanding and common-ground can be found. This personalised and informal approach to writing is another area of particular development from the older text. Text I, in stark contrast to text J, adopts a formal register throughout, using latinate lexis to imply an ascendant status to the reader. This is connected to gender theories, where men are often considered to be more direct, and to write with a stronger tone of authority. Some of the lexical choices made in this text show the lexical development of language specifically, as archaic latinate terms like â€Å"effrontery† are found throughout the text. This is indicative of the broadly formal approach to this text, in opposition to the relaxed, informal approach within text J. Text I appears to adhere to the rules of the oppositional table in regard to written and spoken discourse, where a predominantly objective approach is taken, other than a single reference with the pronoun â€Å"your† is made to the reader. Other than this instance, the text remains entirely objective, referring in the third person to entities for the purpose of explanation. Text J, on the other hand, uses the interpersonal approach which is more common to spoken discourse to address its audience. In terms of the oppositional table, a further consideration can be made as to which side these texts sit more appropriately. This observation is made specifically in regard to the grammatical complexity of the texts, for which text I is more advanced. The use of more advanced punctuation such as the regular application of the semi-colon is exclusive to text I, where the aim is to extend the length of sentences in many places. The semi-colon is accompanied by regular use of commas, where sentences often run to such lengths that they dominate entire paragraphs. This shows the direct intention of the producer to create an undoubtedly written piece of text which was designed to be a basis of authority on a subject of which the producer holds superior knowledge to the reader. When examining text J for the same reasons, the opposing side of the table can be identified, where a grammatically simple text uses exclamatory sentences to deliver impact, and keep a short and chatty tone to convey the points at hand. Text J also uses some unusual starters to sentences, even using conjunctions to begin not only sentences, but paragraphs too. The purpose of these texts display an underlying social and contextual development over the time between the production of each of the texts, where an audience shift from the male to the female appears to take place, showing growing levels of egalitarianism among genders. The growth of significance of the female gender in the establishment of relationships has caused the male tone to be muted somewhat, opting for a more gender-neutral tone, even in a text which was principally written for the female gender, given its contextual location of appearance. While a focus on politeness in the content of the texts remains the same, the way in which this message is conveyed has undergone vast and wide-ranging development. A growth in the status of women through social and political development has given the female gender a more equal position in the audience position of writing such as this. Further to the contextual factors, the means of production of text has also undergone vast development with the advent of digital technology, increasing the ease of production of such texts, and expanding on the flexibility of presentational and graphological features.