Yellow Wallpaper Essay Paper Example For Students

Yellow Wallpaper Essay Paper Eng-1Professor MuellerIt must be about 3 a.m. I am laid up in this hospital with breast cancer writing about my life. I was married to a doctor, God rests his soul, but men in my days were not fun to be with. I had a depression problem and I believe he was more burdensome than the depression itself. There was a time when I just had a baby, I became very depressed, and my husband said it would do me well to get fresh air. I, the woman of the times, wanted to get better and I trusted my husband, and had no other way. So he took me out in the country, and I mostly stayed in this beautiful house that had become my prison with one room in particular. It was there that I realized nobody was listening to me, I had become everyones burden, and my own burdens were not to be heard of. After all, how could I possibly have any, I was given daily baths and massages, I was not to look after my baby at all. I was feed breakfast, lunch and dinner. I was told not to write; it was most forbidden of it . They believed writing excited a woman too much; such a thing was not to be heard of. In that 1880s time a woman was to tend to her husband and the house hold.The room that I stayed in had the most absurd wallpaper. It was yellow, and it some areas it was faded or torn. I despised the wallpaper, but my dear husband said, My love if I fix the wall paper then it will be something else I will have to fix. So this is part of your therapy. You must get used to it.After a while it seemed as if the wallpaper began to reach out at me calling my name. It seemed like a woman was trapped inside the walls. I thought to myself, I must free her. And night I would wake up, and I would see her watching me. At first I was afraid, but now it seems as if we have become one. I watch her crawling around out in the yard from time to time desperately looking for freedom. I wanted so bad to free her, but how could I. I wanted to ask her, but how? Maybe she doesnt want this freedom I believe she so deserve s. I could not wait anymore, I desperately tore at the paper, and at last I freed her. I know now she wanted so much to be free. She was so beautiful with her yellow dress and the way she crawled on all fours, free to do as she pleased. We will write a custom essay on Yellow Wallpaper Paper specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now As I lay her in this hospital bed, I have told my story. I am taking chloroform because I know longer want to live with the pain that comes with breast cancer. I have lived my life the best I knew how and suffered so much. I dont feel I can express the harshness of being a woman in my times. Please dont feel sorry for me as I take my own life God forgives me. English

Speech By The First Lady Michelle Obama Essay Example

Speech By The First Lady Michelle Obama Essay Example Speech By The First Lady Michelle Obama Essay Speech By The First Lady Michelle Obama Essay The real sender is President Obama. One of the main reasons for that is from the line where she says you guys and students like you across America are at the heart Of one Of my husbands most important goals as President. She is delivering a message that the President is thinking about the future of the country and one of his main goals would be to make the school system better especially when it at this time is so proven that it is going backwards. So the sender is President Obama presented by his wife that can assimilate to these young students, by telling them how she was dealing with her school time witch was not easy. The receiver The receiver of this speech is made to the students but also to the parents off hose students, by telling them that even if these students are not the richest youngsters in the country they can still make it, if they just have the ambitions for it. In the speech she told the students that she had to go across town to study and that her family were not rich or educated. This sentence stayed in my head, because this was the message to the parents that they should push their kids to keep on studying, the students also received the message that even if life is tuff on them now they could become what they wanted to, if they just set their mind into it. The purpose My opinion is that this speech, even when it is told in a classroom and in front of students it is a campaign move from the Obama camp. Because the President, when he came to power, made a plan that by 2020, 2/3 of the jobs in the US are going to be needed to employed by people with a higher education then a high school diploma. This plan has widely been criticized because a lot of people think it is a goal set too high. One of the other purposes of this speech is like the first lady pointed out, that in the couple of decades the country has slipped from being the highest country with educated people to a 12th place in the world. And if this goes on it could be devastating for the country. This is also an attack on the prier leadership of the country that made the faults that made the country slip school wise. Ergo she and the President would turn it around and make America one of the best school in the world and get back to its right place. The first lady is also giving the students the message that they need to take responsibility in the ambitions to become the best. Because whatever the state and the school dc they can not do anything if the students do not think higher of them self and rye to better them self. She also talks about from her own personal life when teachers told her that she were setting her sights too high, and that she cool( not get into one of the best schools of America, Princeton. This is a problem well known in America that teachers do not believe in their students, especially in the lower class of the population. This speech that the first lady gave, did really give me doubts about how real it was, even with the first lady talking about her own personal experience, she gave too many hints that it was politically motivated. She talked a lot about the pressure that the lower lass of America is experiencing today, with not having enough energy to complete their education, and not stopping after high school. And that even i they come from a humble family they should break out of their social patter and become something bigger even if their own teachers doubt them, that should just encounter them for doing it more. She also says that if the students do not take responsibility it will become tuff, no matter what the state does to help them on their way, that the country slipped from a first place in the world to a 12th place in the educational world, for me is like ling that the hold country has slipped and not only the school system, because as we know America has in the couple of years really been pressed by other states in the world as head leaders like China, Russia and Brazil.

How My Local Library Helped Me Get from Jobless and Broke to Six Figures a Year

How My Local Library Helped Me Get from Jobless and Broke to Six Figures a Year In 2008 I had the world I had a good job I loved. I earned a pretty good salary, and was constantly praised What is that old saying about pride going before the fall? Yep, thats exactly what happened. Through no fault of my own, the company I worked for as a high-end retail sales manager went bankrupt. We received no advance notice that they were closing our store. On a Thursday in late June of 2008, it was business as usual. Friday shut down. That was the same year the economy crashed in the United States, creating a perfect storm of financial fear and self-doubt in my life. I sold my car and most of my possessions, so I would have some cash to fall back on in case I didnt find another job right away. To bolster my income as I continued to look for work, I decided to learn about this whole making money online thing. Since I could not even afford a monthly Internet bill, I walked to and from the near I stumbled across a few Internet marketing forums, where I sold articles for as little as $5 or $10. After just over a year of cranking out low-paying work seven days a week, my financial situation slowly began to improve. I persisted. I took online courses and writing classes. That persistence paid off. One of my clients told me I should become a copywriter because my writing converted so well for him. I thanked him, hung up the phone and immediately grabbed my Websters Dictionary. I had no clue what a copywriter was! Almost instantly, I began writing copy instead of content. I realized that copywriting was where I needed to be, and where my natural inclinations and talents belonged. I began offering copywriting services to my clients and cut back on writing content. Fast forward eight long years, and I am on pace to flirt with a six-figure income this year. Whats the take-away from this story? Dont give up when things get tough. Always keep your Big Why in the front of your mind. Ask yourself why you want to earn a living as a writer. Be brutally honest with your answer. Keep asking yourself why, over and over, until you get to the basic motivating factor that drives your writing desires. Was it fun for me, walking in the rain, the cold and the heat, seven days a week to my local library to frequently sit next to some less than desirable people while I taught myself how to make a good living writing online? Of course it wasnt. But it was necessary. Do whatever is necessary to live your dream life. Its not really as hard as you may think. It may take time. It is certainly going to take effort. But the personal empowerment and freedom that the freelance writing lifestyle delivers is worth any cost as long as your Why? is big enough.

Child Law Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Child Law - Essay Example The Child Abduction Act addresses the offence that is child abduction. In this case, an abductor could be a parent, or not. The act also provides that an individual who is involved with a child below sixteen years of age is deemed to have committed an offence at such a time as when he either sends or takes a child away from the United Kingdom, and not taking the trouble of seeking proper consent. Once a person is deemed to be a parent to such a child, the law recognizes such a person as being connected to the child in question (Wardle & Nolan 2002). In a situation whereby such a child was born at a time when his parents had not yet married, but evidence exists without any reasonable doubt that such a person is the father to the child, or a guardian for that matter, this is still counted as a connection with the child. The same case applies when such a person has been awarded the child’s custody (Wardle & Nolan 2002). The Child Abduction Act states that the consent to taking away a child has to be sought from the mother to the child, his father (only in a case where such a father enjoys parental responsibilities), the child’s guardian, or another individual who has been favoured by a residence order to take care the child. The same case applies to an individual that has been granted custody of the child in question (Wardle & Nolan 2002). According to the Child Abduction Act, an individual may send or take a child away from United Kingdom and not be seen to have committed any offence under certain circumstances. For example, an individual who has had a residence order ruled in favour of, in as far as the custody of the child is concerned gets exempted, or if an individual wishes to send or take such a child from outside of the United Kingdom for no more than a month’s time (Lyster 2007). The Child Abduction Act may be said to take into account the welfare of the child. For example,

Short book reviews and comparison of reviews Essay

Short book reviews and comparison of reviews - Essay Example Pramoedya Ananta Toer. This Earth of Mankind. New York: Penguin, 1996. Vol. 1 of Buru Quartet. Print. This Earth of Mankind is a novel about modernity, civilization, sex and sexuality in the society. The novel is set around the main protagonist, Minke who reflects on the real meaning of modernity, which he associates with â€Å"learning and science.†1 The idea of modernity and civilization is advanced as Minke shows his interest in electricity;2 he demonstrates modernity by using trains and smaller machines driven by oil and not steam. The novel starts by explaining factors of globalization and hence modernity. The novel also manifests the inner conflict in the main protagonists arising from conflict of interest between the colonized and the colonizer. The author utilizes the narrative approach to detail the life of the main protagonists, and how the protagonists advance the themes of colonialism, modernity, and sexuality. Through describing various inventions and developments in science, the author brings out development of modernity in the novel, and how it impacts the lives of the main protagonists. The author utilizes symbolism and descriptive language throughout the book. For example, the use of aspirin as the most powerful medicine to be discovered by humanity to symbolizes effects of modernity on humanity. The main perspective in the novel is the importance of the native Javanese culture as the main protagonists still fight to keep their identity in the society despite the rapid spreading forces of modernity that seek to abolish such cultures. This is observed through Minke who tries to find his real identity despite being in a Dutch school. The novel also brings out the ills of modernity in the society as prostitution and brothels became a status symbol in the society,3 and the oppression of the natives as seen in the rape of Annelies by Robert; a way to exert power for being associated with Europeans. The issue of mixed blood brews much conflict as Maurit’s father commits blasphemy by mixing the native and white blood, which is unforgivable. Thus the white is taken as a much superior race that cannot mix with the low class native blood. This is an issue of superiority complex, where the white is viewed as being much superior tot eh native. However, dispute the issue of mixed blood being contentious, the whites still continue to sleep with native prostitutes in brothels and to sire children with the natives, which is also mixing the native and white blood. The whites are thus hypocritical. This makes them to reconsider the racial boundaries and in some cases, the native can actually be assimilated into the white society to enjoy the prestige; an example being Minke who enjoys the prestige of the whites though from a mixed blood. Inner conflict in the main protagonists is the main aspect in the novel. Minke in his setting struggles to find his real identity in a society that ranks his native class at the lower end of social hierarchy. He is lonely and is forced to live with constant questioning by fellow students who probably were skeptical regarding his ability to make it in sciences as whites do.4 Nyai Ontosoroh faces serious inner struggles; she is a mistress to a white, though a native and is even mistreated by the same whites for being a native; she is used as a sex

Social reformers Essay Example for Free

Social reformers Essay 1. Gautama Buddha, also known as SiddhÄ rtha Gautama, or simply the Buddha, was a sage on whose teachings Buddhism was founded. Buddha means awakened one or the enlightened one. Buddha is also used as a title for the first awakened being in an era. In most Buddhist traditions, Siddhartha Gautama is regarded as the Supreme Buddha of our age. Gautama taught a Middle Way between sensual indulgence and the severe asceticism found in the Sramana (renunciation) movement common in his region. He later taught throughout regions of eastern India such as Magadha and KoÅ›ala. The times of Gautamas birth and death are uncertain: most historians in the early 20th century dated his lifetime as circa 563 BCE to 483 BCE, but more recent opinion dates his death to between 486 and 483 BCE or, according to some, between 411 and 400 BCE. However, at a symposium on this question held in 1988, the majority of those who presented definite opinions gave dates within 20 years either side of 400 BCE for the Buddhas death. These alternative chronologies, however, have not yet been accepted by all other historians. Gautama is the primary figure in Buddhism, and accounts of his life, discourses, and monastic rules are believed by Buddhists to have been summarized after his death and memorized by his followers. Various collections of teachings attributed to him were passed down by oral tradition, and first committed to writing about 400 years later. Primary biographical sources The primary sources for the life of SiddhÄ rtha Gautama are a variety of different, and sometimes conflicting, traditional biographies. These include the Buddhacarita, Lalitavistara SÃ… «tra, MahÄ vastu, and the NidÄ nakathÄ . Of these, the Buddhacaritais the earliest full biography, an epic poem written by the poet AÅ›vaghoá ¹ £a, and dating around the beginning of the 2nd century CE. The Lalitavistara SÃ… «tra is the next oldest biography, a MahÄ yÄ na/SarvÄ stivÄ da biography dating to the 3rd century CE. The MahÄ vastu from the MahÄ sÄ Ã¡ ¹Æ'ghikaLokottaravÄ da tradition is another major biography, composed incrementally until perhaps the 4th century CE. The Dharmaguptaka biography of the Buddha is the most exhaustive, and is entitled the Abhiniá ¹ £kramaá ¹â€¡a SÃ… «tra, and various Chinese translations of this date between the 3rd and 6th century CE. Lastly, the NidÄ nakathÄ  is from the TheravÄ da tradition in Sri Lanka, was composed in the 5th century CE by Buddhaghoá ¹ £a. From canonical sources, the JÄ takas, the Mahapadana Sutta (DN 14), and the Achariyabhuta Sutta (MN 123) include selective accounts that may be older, but are not full biographies. The JÄ takas retell previous lives of Gautama as a bodhisattva, and the first collection of these can be dated among the earliest Buddhist texts. The MahÄ padÄ na Sutta and Achariyabhuta Sutta both recount miraculous events surrounding Gautamas birth, such as the bodhisattvas descent from Tuá ¹ £ita Heaven into his mothers womb. Nature of traditional depictions Queen MÄ yÄ  miraculously giving birth to SiddhÄ rtha. Sanskritpalm leaf manuscript. NÄ landÄ , Bihar, India. PÄ la period Traditional biographies of Gautama generally include numerous miracles, omens, and supernatural events. The character of the Buddha in these traditional biographies is often that of a fully transcendent (Skt. lokottara) and perfected being who is unencumbered by the mundane world. In the MahÄ vastu, over the course of many lives, Gautama is said to have developed supramundane abilities including: a painless birth conceived without intercourse; no need for sleep, food, medicine, or bathing, although engaging in such in conformity with the world; omniscience, and the ability to suppress karma. Nevertheless, some of the more ordinary details of his life have been gathered from these traditional sources. In modern times there has been an attempt to form a secular understanding of SiddhÄ rtha Gautamas life by omitting the traditional supernatural eleme nts of his early biographies. Andrew Skilton writes that the Buddha was never historically regarded by Buddhist traditions as being merely human: It is important to stress that, despite modern Theravada teachings to the contrary (often a sop to skeptical Western pupils), he was never seen as being merely human. For instance, he is often described as having the thirty-two major and eighty minor marks or signs of a mahÄ puruá ¹ £a, superman; the Buddha himself denied that he was either a man or a god; and in the MahÄ parinibbÄ na Sutta he states that he could live for an aeon were he asked to do so. The ancient Indians were generally unconcerned with chronologies, being more focused on philosophy. Buddhist texts reflect this tendency, providing a clearer picture of what Gautama may have taught than of the dates of the events in his life. These texts contain descriptions of the culture and daily life of ancient India which can be corroborated from the Jain scriptures, and make the Buddhas time the earliest period in Indian history for which significant accounts exist.[27][full citation needed] British author Karen Armstrong writes that although there is very little information that can be considered historically sound, we can be reasonably confident that SiddhÄ rtha Gautama did exist as a historical figure.[28][dubious – discuss] Michael Carrithers goes a bit further by stating that the most general outline of birth, maturity, renunciation, search, awakening and liberation, teaching, death must be true. Biography Conception and birth Purported birthplace of Gautama Buddha in Lumbini, a holy shrine also for Hindus, who believe Buddha is the 9th of 10 Dashavataras of Vishnu. Most scholars regard Kapilavastu, present-day Nepal, to be the birthplace of the Buddha.Other possibilities are Lumbini, present-day Nepal Kapileswara, Odisha, present-day India; and Piprahwa, Uttar Pradesh, present-day India. According to the most traditional biography, Buddha was born in a royal Hindu family to King Ã…Å¡uddhodana, the leader of Shakya clan, whose capital was Kapilavastu, and who were later annexed by the growing Kingdom of Kosala during the Buddhas lifetime. Gautama was the family name. His mother, Queen Maha Maya (MÄ yÄ devÄ «) and Suddhodanas wife, was a Koliyan princess. Legend has it that, on the night Siddhartha was conceived, Queen Maya dreamt that a white elephant with six white tusks entered her right side, and ten months later Siddhartha was born. As was the Shakya tradition, when his mother Queen Maya became pregnant, she left Kapilvastu for her fathers kingdom to give birth. However, her son is said to have been born on the way, at Lumbini, in a garden beneath a sal tree. The day of the Buddhas birth is widely celebrated in Theravada countries as Vesak. Buddhas birth anniversary holiday is called Buddha Poornima in India as Buddha is believed to have been born on a full moon day. Various sources hold that the Buddhas mother died at his birth, a few days or seven days later. The infant was given the name Siddhartha (PÄ li: Siddhattha), meaning he who achieves his aim. During the birth celebrations, the hermit seerAsita journeyed from his mountain abode and announced that the child would either become a great king (chakravartin) or a great holy man. By traditional account, this occurred after Siddhartha placed his feet in Asitas hair and Asita examined the birthmarks. Suddhodana held a naming ceremony on the fifth day, and invited eight brahmin scholars to read the future. All gave a dual prediction that the baby would either become a great king or a great holy man.[32]Kaundinya (Pali: Kondaà ±Ãƒ ±a), the youngest, and later to be the first arahant other than the Buddha, was reputed to be the only one who unequivocally predicted that Siddhartha would become a Buddha While later tradition and legend characterized Ã…Å¡uddhodana as a hereditarymonarch, the descendant of the Solar Dynasty of Iká ¹ £vÄ ku (PÄ li: OkkÄ ka), many scholars think that Ã…Å¡uddhodana was the elected chief of a tribal confederacy. Early texts suggest that Gautama was not familiar with the dominant religious teachings of his time until he left on his religious quest, which is said to have been motivated by existential concern for the human condition.At the time, many small city-states existed in Ancient India, called Janapadas. Republics and chiefdoms with diffused political power and limited social stratification, were not uncommon amongst them, and were referred to as gana-sanghas. The Buddhas community does not seem to have had a caste system. It was not a monarchy, and seems to have been structured either as an oligarchy, or as a form of republic. The more egalitarian gana-sangha form of government, as a political alternative to the strongly hierarchical kingdoms, may have influenced the development of the Shramana-type Jain and Buddhist sanghas, where monarchies tended toward Vedic Brahmanism. Early life and marriage Departure of Prince Siddhartha Siddhartha was born in a royal Hindu family.[30] He was brought up by his mothers younger sister, Maha Pajapati.[38] By tradition, he is said to have been destined by birth to the life of a prince, and had three palaces (for seasonal occupation) built for him. Although more recent scholarship doubts this status, his father, said to be King Ã…Å¡uddhodana, wishing for his son to be a great king, is said to have shielded him from religious teachings and from knowledge of human suffering. When he reached the age of 16, his father reputedly arranged his marriage to a cousin of the same age named YaÅ›odharÄ  (PÄ li: YasodharÄ ). According to the traditional account,[which?] she gave birth to a son, named RÄ hula. Siddhartha is said to have spent 29 years as a prince in Kapilavastu. Although his father ensured that Siddhartha was provided with everything he could want or need, Buddhist scriptures say that the future Buddha felt that material wealth was not lifes ultimate goal.[38 ] Departure and ascetic life. The Great Departure of Siddhartha Gautama, surrounded by a halo, he is accompanied by numerous guards, maithuna loving couples, and devata who have come to pay homage; Gandhara, Kushan period Prince Siddhartha shaves his hair and becomes an ascetic. Borobudur, 8th century At the age of 29, the popular biography[which?] continues, Siddhartha left his palace to meet his subjects. Despite his fathers efforts to hide from him the sick, aged and suffering, Siddhartha was said to have seen an old man. When his charioteer Channa explained to him that all people grew old, the prince went on further trips beyond the palace. On these he encountered a diseased man, a decaying corpse, and an ascetic. These depressed him, and he initially strove to overcome ageing, sickness, and death by living the life of an ascetic.[39] Accompanied by Channa and riding his horse Kanthaka, Gautama quit his palace for the life of a mendicant. Its said that, the horses hooves were muffled by the gods[40] to prevent guards from knowing of his departure. Gautama initially went to Rajagaha and began his ascetic life by begging for alms in the street. After King Bimbisaras men recognised Siddhartha and the king learned of his quest, Bimbisara offered Siddhartha the throne. Siddhartha rejected the offer, but promised to visit his kingdom of Magadha first, upon attaining enlightenment. He left Rajagaha and practised under two hermit teachers of yogic meditation.[41][42][43] After mastering the teachings of Alara Kalama (Skr. Ä€rÄ Ã¡ ¸ a KÄ lÄ ma), he was asked by Kalama to succeed him. However, Gautama felt unsatisfied by the practise, and moved on to become a student of yoga with Udaka Ramaputta (Skr. Udraka RÄ maputra).[44] With him he achieved high levels of meditative consciousness, and was again asked to succeed his teacher. But, once more, he was not satisfied, and again moved on.[45] Siddhartha and a group of five companions led by Kaundinya are then said to have set out to take their austerities even further. They tried to find enlightenment through deprivation of worldly goods, including food, practising self-mortification. After nearly starving himself to death by restricting his food intake to around a leaf or nut per day, he collapsed in a river while bathing and almost drowned. Siddhartha began to reconsider his path. Then, he remembered a moment in childhood in which he had been watching his father start the seasons plowing. He attained a concentrated and focused state that was blissful and refreshing, the jhÄ na. Awakening See also: Enlightenment in Buddhism The Buddha surrounded by the demons of MÄ ra. Sanskritpalm leaf manuscript. NÄ landÄ , Bihar, India. PÄ la period According to the early Buddhist texts,[web 6] after realizing that meditative jhana was the right path to awakening, but that extreme asceticism didnt work, Gautama discovered what Buddhists call the Middle Way[web 6]—a path of moderation away from the extremes of self-indulgence and self-mortification.[web 6] In a famous incident, after becoming starved and weakened, he is said to have accepted milk and rice pudding from a village girl named Sujata.[web 7] Such was his emaciated appearance that she wrongly believed him to be a spirit that had granted her a wish.[web 7] Following this incident, Gautama was famously seated under a pipal tree—now known as the Bodhi tree—in Bodh Gaya, India, when he vowed never to arise until he had found the truth.[46] Kaundinya and four other companions, believing that he had abandoned his search and become undisciplined, left. After a reputed 49 days of meditation, at the age of 35, he is said to have attained Enlightenment.[46][47] According to some traditions, this occurred in approximately the fifth lunar month, while, according to others, it was in the twelfth month. From that time, Gautama was known to his followers as the Buddha or Awakened One (Buddha is also sometimes translated as The Enlightened One). According to Buddhism, at the time of his awakening he realized complete insight into the cause of suffering, and the steps necessary to eliminate it. These discoveries became known as the Four Noble Truths,[47] which are at the heart of Buddhist teaching. Through mastery of these truths, a state of supreme liberation, or Nirvana, is believed to be possible for any being. The Buddha described NirvÄ na as the perfect peace of a mind thats free from ignorance, greed, hatred and other afflictive states,[47] or defilements (kilesas). Nirvana is also regarded as the end of the world, in that no personal identity or boundaries of the mind remain. In such a state, a being is said to possess the Ten Characteristics, belonging to every Buddha. According to a story in the Ä€yÄ cana Sutta (Samyutta Nikaya VI.1) — a scripture found in the PÄ li and other canons — immediately after his awakening, the Buddha debated whether or not he should teach the Dharma to others. He was concerned that humans were so overpowered by ignorance, greed and hatred that they could never recognise the path, which is subtle, deep and hard to grasp. However, in the story, BrahmÄ  Sahampati convinced him, arguing that at least some will understand it. The Buddha relented, and agreed to teach. Formation of the sangha Dhà ¢mek Stà »pa in Sà ¢rnà ¢th, India, site of the first teaching of the Buddha in which he taught the Four Noble Truths to his first five disciples After his awakening, the Buddha met two merchants, named Tapussa and Bhallika, who became his first lay disciples. They were apparently each given hairs from his head, which are now claimed to be enshrined as relics in the Shwe Dagon Temple in Rangoon, Burma. The Buddha intended to visit Asita, and his former teachers, Alara Kalama and Udaka Ramaputta, to explain his findings, but they had already died. He then travelled to the Deer Park near VÄ rÄ Ã¡ ¹â€¡asÄ « (Benares) in northern India, where he set in motion what Buddhists call the Wheel of Dharma by delivering his first sermon to the five companions with whom he had sought enlightenment. Together with him, they formed the first saá ¹â€¦gha: the company of Buddhist monks. All five become arahants, and within the first two months, with the conversion of Yasa and fifty four of his friends, the number of such arahants is said to have grown to 60. The conversion of three brothers named Kassapa followed, with their reputed 200, 300 and 500 disciples, respectively. This swelled the sangha to more than 1,000. Travels and teaching Buddha with his protector Vajrapani, GandhÄ ra, 2nd century CE, Ostasiatische Kunst Museum For the remaining 45 years of his life, the Buddha is said to have traveled in the Gangetic Plain, in what is now Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and southern Nepal, teaching a diverse range of people: from nobles to outcaste street sweepers, murderers such as Angulimala, and cannibals such as Alavaka. From the outset, Buddhism was equally open to all races and classes, and had no caste structure, as was the rule for most Hindus in the-then society. Although the Buddhas language remains unknown, its likely that he taught in one or more of a variety of closely related Middle Indo-Aryan dialects, of which Pali may be a standardization. The sangha traveled through the subcontinent, expounding the dharma. This continued throughout the year, except during the four months of the vassana rainy season when ascetics of all religions rarely traveled. One reason was that it was more difficult to do so without causing harm to animal life. At this time of year, the sangha would retreat to monasteries, public parks or forests, where people would come to them. The first vassana was spent at Varanasi when the sangha was formed. After this, the Buddha kept a promise to travel to Rajagaha, capital of Magadha, to visit King Bimbisara. During this visit, Sariputta and Maudgalyayana were converted by Assaji, one of the first five disciples, after which they were to become the Buddhas two foremost followers. The Buddha spent the next three seasons at Veluvana Bamboo Grove monastery in Rajagaha, capital of Magadha. Upon hearing of his sons awakening, Suddhodana sent, over a period, ten delegations to ask him to return to Kapilavastu. On the first nine occasions, the delegates failed to deliver the message, and instead joined the sangha to become arahants. The tenth delegation, led by Kaludayi, a childhood friend of Gautamas (who also became an arahant), however, delivered the message. Now two years after his awakening, the Buddha agreed to return, and made a two-month journey by foot to Kapilavastu, teaching the dharma as he went. At his return, the royal palace prepared a midday meal, but the sangha was making an alms round in Kapilavastu. Hearing this, Suddhodana approached his son, the Buddha, saying: Ours is the warrior lineage of Mahamassata, and not a single warrior has gone seeking alms The Buddha is said to have replied: That is not the custom of your royal lineage. But it is the custom of my Buddha lineage. Several thousands of Buddhas have gone by seeking alms Buddhist texts say that Suddhodana invited the sangha into the palace for the meal, followed by a dharma talk. After this he is said to have become a sotapanna. During the visit, many members of the royal family joined the sangha. The Buddhas cousins Ananda and Anuruddha became two of his five chief disciples. At the age of seven, his son Rahula also joined, and became one of his ten chief disciples. His half-brother Nanda also joined and became an arahant. Of the Buddhas disciples, Sariputta, Maudgalyayana, Mahakasyapa, Ananda and Anuruddha are believed to have been the five closest to him. His ten foremost disciples were reputedly completed by the quintet of Upali, Subhoti, Rahula, Mahakaccana and Punna. In the fifth vassana, the Buddha was staying at Mahavana near Vesali when he heard news of the impending death of his father. He is said to have gone to Suddhodana and taught the dharma, after which his father became an arahant. The kings death and cremation was to inspire the creation of an order of nuns. Buddhist texts record that the Buddha was reluctant to ordain women. His foster mother Maha Pajapati, for example, approached him, asking to join the sangha, but he refused. Maha Pajapati, however, was so intent on the path of awakening that she led a group of royal Sakyan and Koliyan ladies, which followed the sangha on a long journey to Rajagaha. In time, after Ananda championed their cause, the Buddha is said to have reconsidered and, five years after the formation of the sangha, agreed to the ordination of women as nuns. He reasoned that males and females had an equal capacity for awakening. But he gave women additional rules (Vinaya) to follow. Assassination attempts According to colorful legends, even during the Buddhas life the sangha was not free of dissent and discord. For example, Devadatta, a cousin of Gautama who became a monk but not an arahant, more than once tried to kill him. Initially, Devadatta is alleged to have often tried to undermine the Buddha. In one instance, according to stories, Devadatta even asked the Buddha to stand aside and let him lead the sangha. When this failed, he is accused of having three times tried to kill his teacher. The first attempt is said to have involved him hiring a group of archers to shoot the awakened one. But, upon meeting the Buddha, they laid down their bows and instead became followers. A second attempt is said to have involved Devadatta rolling a boulder down a hill. But this hit another rock and splintered, only grazing the Buddhas foot. In the third attempt, Devadatta is said to have got an elephant drunk and set it loose. This ruse also failed. After his lack of success at homicide, Devadatta is said to have tried to create a schism in the sangha, by proposing extra restrictions on the vinaya. When the Buddha again prevailed, Devadatta started a breakaway order. At first, he managed to convert some of the bhikkhus, but Sariputta and Maudgalyayana are said to have expounded the dharma so effectively that they were won back. Mahaparinirvana The Buddhas entry into Parinirvana. Sanskritpalm leaf manuscript. NÄ landÄ , Bihar, India. PÄ la period The sharing of the relics of the Buddha, ZenyÃ… mitsu-Temple Museum, Tokyo According to the Mahaparinibbana Sutta of the Pali canon, at the age of 80, the Buddha announced that he would soon reach Parinirvana, or the final deathless state, and abandon his earthly body. After this, the Buddha ate his last meal, which he had received as an offering from a blacksmith named Cunda. Falling violently ill, Buddha instructed his attendant Ä€nanda to convince Cunda that the meal eaten at his place had nothing to do with his passing and that his meal would be a source of the greatest merit as it provided the last meal for a Buddha.[web 8] Dr Mettanando and Von Hinà ¼ber argue that the Buddha died of mesentericinfarction, a symptom of old age, rather than food poisoning.[48][note 11] The precise contents of the Buddhas final meal are not clear, due to variant scriptural traditions and ambiguity over the translation of certain significant terms; the Theravada tradition generally believes that the Buddha was offered some kind of pork, while the Mahayana tradition believes that the Buddha consumed some sort of truffle or other mushroom. These may reflect the different traditional views on Buddhist vegetarianism and the precepts for monks and nuns. Ananda protested the Buddhas decision to enter Parinirvana in the abandoned jungles of KuÅ›inÄ ra (present-day Kushinagar, India) of the Malla kingdom. The Buddha, however, is said to have reminded Ananda how Kushinara was a land once ruled by a righteous wheel-turning king that resounded with joy: 44. Kusavati, Ananda, resounded unceasingly day and night with ten sounds—the trumpeting of elephants, the neighing of horses, the rattling of chariots, the beating of drums and tabours, music and song, cheers, the clapping of hands, and cries of Eat, drink, and be merry! The Buddha then asked all the attendant Bhikkhus to clarify any doubts or questions they had. They had none. According to Buddhist scriptures, he then finally entered Parinirvana. The Buddhas final words are reported to have been: All composite things (Saá ¹â€¦khÄ ra) are perishable. Strive for your own liberation with diligence (Pali: vayadhammÄ  saá ¹â€¦khÄ rÄ  appamÄ dena sampÄ dethÄ ). His body was cremated and the relics were placed in monuments or stupas, some of which are believed to have survived until the present. For example, The Temple of the Tooth or Dalada Maligawa in Sri Lanka is the place where what some believe to be the relic of the right tooth of Buddha is kept at present. According to the PÄ li historical chronicles of Sri Lanka, the DÄ «pavaá ¹Æ'sa and MahÄ vaá ¹Æ'sa, the coronation of Emperor AÅ›oka (PÄ li: Asoka) is 218 years after the death of Buddha. According to two textual records in Chinese (Ã¥  Ã¥â€¦ «Ã©Æ' ¨Ã¨ «â€" and éÆ' ¨Ã¥Å¸ ·Ã§â€¢ °Ã¨ «â€"), the coronation of Emperor AÅ›oka is 116 years after the death of Buddha. Therefore, the time of Buddhas passing is either 486 BCE according to TheravÄ da record or 383 BCE according to Mahayana record. However, the actual date traditionally accepted as the date of the Buddhas death in TheravÄ da countries is 544 or 545 BCE, because the reign of Emperor AÅ›oka was traditionally reckoned to be about 60 years earlier than current estimates. In Burmese Buddhist tradition, the date of the Buddhas death is 13 May 544 BCE,[49] whereas in Thai tradition it is 11 March 545 BCE.[50] At his death, the Buddha is famously believed to have told his disciples to follow no leader. Mahakasyapa was chosen by the sangha to be the chairman of the First Buddhist Council, with the two chief disciples Maudgalyayana and Sariputta having died before the Buddha. While in Buddhas days he was addressed by the very respected titles Buddha, ShÄ kyamuni, ShÄ kyasimha, Bhante and Bho, he was known after his parinirvana as Arihant, BhagavÄ /Bhagavat/BhagwÄ n, MahÄ vira,[51] Jina/Jinendra, SÄ str, Sugata, and most popularly in scriptures as TathÄ gata. Relics After his death, the Buddha was cremated and the ashes divided among his disciples. According to the PBS series Secrets of the Dead, an urn containing these was discovered in a stupa at Piprahwa near Birdpur [historical British variant as Birdpore], a Buddhist sacred structure in the Basti district of Uttar Pradesh in India by amateur archaeologist William Claxton Peppe in 1898. They were given to the King of Siam (Thailand) a couple of years later, where they still reside. Physical characteristics Main article: Physical characteristics of the Buddha GandhÄ ran depiction of the Buddha from Hadda, Afghanistan; Victoria and Albert Museum, London An extensive and colorful physical description of the Buddha has been laid down in scriptures. A kshatriya by birth, he had military training in his upbringing, and by Shakyan tradition was required to pass tests to demonstrate his worthiness as a warrior in order to marry. He had a strong enough body to be noticed by one of the kings and was asked to join his army as a general. He is also believed by Buddhists to have the 32 Signs of the Great Man. The Brahmin Sonadanda described him as handsome, good-looking, and pleasing to the eye, with a most beautiful complexion. He has a godlike form and countenance, he is by no means unattractive.(D,I:115). It is wonderful, truly marvellous, how serene is the good Gotamas appearance, how clear and radiant his complexion, just as the golden jujube in autumn is clear and radiant, just as a palm-tree fruit just loosened from the stalk is clear and radiant, just as an adornment of red gold wrought in a crucible by a skilled goldsmith, deftly beaten and laid on a yellow-cloth shines, blazes and glitters, even so, the good Gotamas senses are calmed, his complexion is clear and radiant. (A,I:181) A disciple named Vakkali, who later became an arahant, was so obsessed by Buddhas physical presence that the Buddha is said to have felt impelled to tell him to desist, and to have reminded him that he should know the Buddha through the Dhamma and not through physical appearances. Although there are no extant representations of the Buddha in human form until around the 1st century CE (see Buddhist art), descriptions of the physical characteristics of fully enlightened buddhas are attributed to the Buddha in the Digha Nikayas Lakkhaá ¹â€¡a Sutta (D,I:142).[52] In addition, the Buddhas physical appearance is described by Yasodhara to their son Rahula upon the Buddhas first post-Enlightenment return to his former princely palace in the non-canonical Pali devotional hymn, NarasÄ «ha GÄ thÄ  (The Lion of Men).[web 10] Among the 32 main characteristics it is mentioned that Buddha has blue eyes.[53] Nine virtues The nine virtues of the Buddha appear throughout the Tipitaka.[54] Recollection of the nine virtues of the Buddha is a common Buddhist devotional practice, it is also one of the 40 Buddhist meditation subjects. Araham – Worthy of homage. An Arahant is one with taints destroyed, who has lived the holy life, done what had to be done, laid done the burden, reached the true goal, destroyed the fetters of being, and is completely liberated through final knowledge. Sammasambuddho – Perfectly self-awakened Reclining Buddha in Jade Temple, Shanghai Some scholars believe that some portions of the Pali Canon and the Ä€gamas contain the actual substance of the historical teachings (and possibly even the words) of the Buddha.[55][56] Some scholars believe the Pali Canon and the Agamas pre-date the MahÄ yÄ na sÃ… «tras.[57] The scriptural works of Early Buddhism precede the Mahayana works chronologically, and are treated by many Western scholars as the main credible source for information regarding the actual historical teachings of Gautama Buddha. However, some scholars do not think that the texts report on historical events.[58][dubious– discuss][59][60] Hajime Nakamura writes that there is nothing in the traditional Buddhist texts that can be clearly attributed to Gautama as a historical figure:[61] [I]n the Buddhist texts there is no word that can be traced with unquestionable authority to Gautama ÅšÄ kyamuni as a historical personage, although there must be some sayings or phrases derived from him. Some of the fundamentals of the teachings attributed to Gautama Buddha are: The Four Noble Truths: that suffering is an ingrained part of existence; that the origin of suffering is craving for sensuality, acquisition of identity, and annihilation; that suffering can be ended; and that following the Noble Eightfold Path is the means to accomplish this; The Noble Eightfold Path: right view, right intention, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, and right concentration; Dependent origination: the mind creates suffering as a natural product of a complex process; Rejection of the infallibility of accepted scripture: Teachings should not be accepted unless they are borne out by our experience and are praised by the wise. See the Kalama Sutta for details; Anicca (Sanskrit: anitya): That all things that come to be have an end; Dukkha (Sanskrit: duá ¸ ¥kha): That nothing which comes to be is ultimately satisfying; AnattÄ  (Sanskrit: anÄ tman): That nothing in the realm of experience can really be said to be I or mine; NibbÄ na (Sanskrit: NirvÄ na): It is possible for sentient beings to realize a dimension of awareness which is totally unconstructed and peaceful, and end all suffering due to the minds interaction with the conditioned world. However, in some Mahayana schools, these points have come to be regarded as more or less subsidiary. There is disagreement amongst various schools of Buddhism over more complex aspects of what the Buddha is believed to have taught, and also over some of the disciplinary rules for monks. According to tradition, the Buddha emphasized ethics and correct understanding. He questioned everyday notions of divinity and salvation. He stated that there is no intermediary between mankind and the divine; distant gods are subjected to karma themselves in decaying heavens; and the Buddha is only a guide and teacher for beings who must tread the path of NirvÄ Ã¡ ¹â€¡a (PÄ li: NibbÄ na) themselves to attain the spiritual awakening called bodhi and understand reality. The Buddhist system of insight and meditation practice is not claimed to have been divinely revealed, but to spring from an understanding of the true nature of the mind, which must be discovered by treading the path guided by the Buddhas teachings. Other religions Buddha depicted as the 9th Avatar of god Vishnu in a traditional Hindu representation Main article: Gautama Buddha in world religions In Hinduism, Gautama is regarded as one of the ten avatars of God Vishnu.[note 6] The Buddha is also regarded as a prophet by the Ahmadiyyas[62][63][64] and a Manifestation of God in the Bahà ¡Ãƒ ­ faith.[65] Some early Chinese Taoist-Buddhists thought the Buddha to be a reincarnation of Lao Tzu.[66] The Christian Saint Josaphat is based on the life of the Buddha. The name comes from the Sanskrit Bodhisatva via Arabic BÃ… «dhasaf and Georgian Iodasaph.[67] The only story in which St. Josaphat appears, Barlaam and Josaphat, is based on the life of the Buddha.[68] Josaphat was included in earlier editions of the Roman Martyrology (feast day 27 November) — though not in the Roman Missal — and in the Eastern Orthodox Church liturgical calendar (26 August). 2. Annabhau Sathe Despite lack of formal education, Sathe wrote in Marathi 35 novels, one among which was Fakira (1959). Fakira, which is currently in its 19th edition, received a state government award in 1961. There are 15 collections of Sathes short stories. A large number of his short stories have been translated into many Indian and as many as 27 non-Indian languages. Besides novels and short stories, Sathe wrote a play, a travelogue on Russia, 12 screenplays, and 10 ballads powade(Marahti). Sathe wrote directly from his experiences in life, and his novels celebrate the fighting spirit in their characters who work against all odds in life. Early life Annabhau Sathe was born in the village of Wategaon near Sangli in a family belonging to the Dalit [[Mang [Hindu] (caste)|Mang]] community. (The community has been identified by the Indian government as a SCscheduled caste.) Poverty had prevented Sathe from obtaining formal education. His brother Shankarbhau recounts in his biography of Sathe, titled Majhe Bhau Annabhau, that the family members worked as laborers at the site of Kalyan tunnel when it was being constructed. Writings Lok Rajya, a Maharashtra state government fortnightly, published on 1 November 1993, a special commemorative issue concerning Sathe. The state government also issued in 1998 a collection of his works under the title Lokshahir Annabhau Sathe Nivadak Sahitya.Amartya shinde and Aditya Shinde,Nerul Navi Mumbai 706 also having good information regarding Annabhau Sathe and his relations with Famous Film Actor Balraj Sahani. Other achievements To generate social awareness, he organized stage performances of powade and tamasha, ethnic dances chiefly performed by women, which are popular in rural Maharashtra. He produced 14 tamasha shows. In the late 1940s, the then Home Minister of the Bombay state government Morarji Desai had banned tamasha shows, but Sathe courageously defied the ban by renaming them as lokanatya. People in Maharashtra conferred the epithet lok shahir on Sathe. On the issue of a postage stamp of Anna Bhau Sathe at Chembur, Mumbai minister Pramod Mahajan called Anna as a saint of Maharashtra. Sathe was an important mobilizer in the Samyukta Maharashtra movement. He used the medium of powade to great effect in that movement. Sathe was attracted to communism and had visited USSR. He was a founder member of the Lal Bawta Kalapathak of the Communist Party in Maharashtra. Sathe lived a life of destitution. After spending 22 years in a Ghatkopar (west), chirag nagar slum, Sathe moved to a modest house in Goregaon which the state government provided him in 1968, one year before he died. External links http://www.manase.org/maharashtra.php?mid=68smid=23pmid=8id=800 Authority control VIAF: 13245460 {{Persondata | NAME = Sathe, Annabhau | ALTERNATIVE NAMES = | SHORT DESCRIPTION = Indian writer | DATE OF BIRTH = August 1, 1920 | PLACE OF BIRTH = | DATE OF DEATH = July 18, 1969Tukaram alias Annabhau Sathe was born in the village of Wategaon near Sangli in a family belonging to the Dalit Matang community. on 1st August 1920 (The community has been identified by the Indian government as a scheduled caste.) There are 15 collections of Sathes short stories. A large number of his short stories have been translated into many Indian and as many as 27 non-Indian languages. Besides novels and short stories, Sathe wrote a play, a travelogue on Russia, 12 screenplays, and 10 ballads powade(Marahti). Sathe wrote directly from his experiences in life, and his novels celebrate the fighting spirit in their characters who work against all odds in life. Lok Rajya, a Maharashtra state government fortnightly, published on November 1, 1993, a special commemorative issue concerning Sathe. The state government also issued in 1998 a collection of his works under the title Lokshahir Annabhau Sathe Nivadak Sahitya. Other achievements Sathe worked among the poor. To generate social awareness, he organized stage performances of powade and tamasha, ethnic dances chiefly performed by women, which are popular in rural Maharashtra. He produced 14 tamashashows. In the late 1940s, the then Home Minister of the Bombay state government Morarji Desai had banned tamasha shows, but Sathe courageously defied the ban by renaming them as lokanatya. People in Maharashtra conferred the epithet lok shahir on Sathe. on the Occasion of Postage stamp of Anna Bhau Sathe at Chembur,Mumbai Honrable minister Mr.Pramod Mahajan, called Ann as A saint of Maharashtra. Sathe was an important mobilizer in the Samyukta Maharashtra movement. He used the medium of powade to great effect in that movement. on the same occasion he sung a Chakkad as Mazi Maina Gavavar Rahili Mazya Jiwachi hottiya Kahili-edited by Prof. Balaji Shinde and Amartya shinde,Nerul Navi Mumbai-706 Sathe was attracted to communism and had visited USSR. He was a founder member of the Lal Bawta Kalapathak of the Communist Party in Maharashtra. Also Annabhu sathe was the member of Matang Samaj Kaminty at Satara and Sagli Personal life Sathe lived a life of destitution. After spending 22 years in a Ghatkopar (west) chirag nagar slum, Sathe moved to a modest house in Goregaon which the state government provided him in 1968, one year before he died. Honors Many cultural organizations and roads in Maharashtra have been named after Sathe. Shahir Bapu Pawar (Solapur, Contact no 8805500620) have written song on Annabhau Sathes life release Adio cassettes CDs also Death-11th July 1969 | PLACE OF DEATH = }}

Determination †A Learned Trait :: Personal Narrative Experience Essays

Determination – A Learned Trait For some odd reason, the Bolivian military has a tendency to make people grow up. I was almost 18 when I was recruited, but it seems like I wasn’t much more mature than a 13 year old teenager; not that I was much older. I really felt that the world was simply a game where everyone would try to make life easy for me; I thought everything kind of revolved around me. I was well educated and polite, but things like saying â€Å"sir† simply weren’t a part of my life style. The ability to serve others for nothing still hadn’t been born within me. Incredibly that changed, beginning from the very first day of training in the Bolivian Army. Probably one of the things that helped me grow up fast was the sudden departure from my parents and friends. All of the sudden I was alone in a world of loneliness, where my only comfort was the drill sergeant yelling his lungs out at me. It was never a good idea to let anyone know you were homesick, because the drill sergeant would order a â€Å"happy hug† where every single recruit would go squeeze you as hard as they can. The first couple of happy hugs weren’t all that bad, but after 80 of them, a persons ribs feel like they’ve been run over by a truck ten times! Indeed, learning determination, coordination, and punctuality with all the exercises are one of the most challenging times in the military. Those five o’clock morning jogs – rain or shine – made us realize that it is possible to continue doing something no matter what else was going on around us; that’s a valuable lesson to learn in life. We all learned rather quickly not to yawn early in the morning, because if we did the sergeant would order us to do the â€Å"alarm clock wake up†, where the guy in front would turn around and slaps the person behind him. Then that guy would turn around and slap the guy behind him. I still feel kind of sorry for the last guy in line; he never got to smack anyone! Indeed, it is quite an effective way to wake up the troops. Unfortunately, we also learned to not have

Berlin Wall Essay

What Was the Berlin Wall? The Berlin Wall was both the physical division between West Berlin and East Germany from 1961 to 1989 and the symbolic boundary between democracy and Communism during the Cold War. Dates: August 13, 1961 — November 9, 1989 Overview of the Berlin Wall The Berlin Wall was erected in the dead of night and for 28 years kept East Germans from fleeing to the West. Its destruction, which was nearly as instantaneous as its creation, was celebrated around the world. A Divided Berlin At the end of World War II, the Allied powers divided conquered Germany into four zones, each occupied by either the United States, Great Britain, France, or the Soviet Union (as agreed at the Potsdam Conference). The same was done with Germany’s capital city, Berlin. As the relationship between the Soviet Union and the other three Allied powers quickly disintegrated, the cooperative atmosphere of the occupation of Germany turned competitive and aggressive. Although an eventual reunification of Germany had been intended, the new relationship between the Allied powers turned Germany into West versus East, democracy versus Communism. In 1949, this new organization of Germany became official when the three zones occupied by the United States, Great Britain, and France combined to form West Germany (the Federal Republic of Germany). The zone occupied by the Soviet Union quickly followed by forming East Germany (the German Democratic Republic). This same division into West and East occurred in Berlin. Since the city of Berlin had been situated entirely within the Soviet zone of occupation, West Berlin became an island of democracy within Communist East Germany. Mass Emigration Within a short period of time after the war, living conditions in West Germany and East Germany became distinctly different. With the help and support of its occupying powers, West Germany set up a capitalist society and experienced such a rapid growth of their economy that it became known as the â€Å"economic miracle.† With hard work, individuals living in West Germany were able to live well, buy gadgets and appliances, and to travel as they  wished. Nearly the opposite was true in East Germany. Since the Soviet Union had viewed their zone as a spoil of war, the Soviets pilfered factory equipment and other valuable assets from their zone and shipped them back to the Soviet Union. When East Germany became its own country, it was under the direct influence of the Soviet Union and thus a Communist society was established. In East Germany, the economy dragged and individual freedoms were severely restricted. By the late 1950s, many people living in East Germany wanted out. No longer able to stand the repressive living conditions of East Germany, they would pack up their bags and head to West Berlin. Although some of them would be stopped on their way, hundreds of thousands of others made it across the border. Once across, these refugees were housed in warehouses and then flown to West Germany. Many of those who escaped were young, trained professionals. By the early 1960s, East Germany was rapidly losing both its labor force and its population. Having already lost 2.5 million people by 1961, East Germany desperately needed to stop this mass exodus. The obvious leak was the easy access East Germans had to West Berlin. With the support of the Soviet Union, there had been several attempts to simply take over West Berlin in order to eliminate this exit point. Although the Soviet Union even threatened the United States with the use of nuclear weapons over this issue, the United States and other Western countries were committed to defending West Berlin. Desp erate to keep its citizens, East Germany decided to build a wall to prevent them from crossing the border. The Berlin Wall Goes Up There had been rumors that something might happen to tighten the border of East and West Berlin, but no one was expecting the speed nor the absoluteness of the Wall. Just past midnight on the night of August 12-13, 1961, trucks with soldiers and construction workers rumbled through East Berlin. While most Berliners were sleeping, these crews began tearing up streets that entered into West Berlin, dug holes to put up concrete posts, and strung barbed wire all across the border between East and West Berlin. Telephone wires between East and West Berlin were also cut. Berliners were shocked when they woke up that morning. What had once been a very fluid border was now rigid. No longer could East Berliners cross the border for  operas, plays, soccer games, etc. No longer could the approximately 60,000 commuters head to West Berlin for well-paying jobs. No longer could families, friends, and lovers cross the border to meet their loved ones. Whichever side of the border one went to sleep on during the night of August 12, they were stuck on that side for decades. The Size and Scope of the Berlin Wall The Berlin Wall stretched over a hundred miles. It ran not only through the center of Berlin, but also wrapped around West Berlin, entirely cutting West Berlin off from the rest of East Germany. The wall itself went through four major transformations during its 28-year history. The Berlin Wall started out as a barbed-wire fence with concrete posts, but just a few days after the first fence was placed, it was quickly replaced with a sturdier, more permanent structure made out of concrete blocks, topped with barbed wire. The first two versions of the wall (barbed wire and concrete blocks) were replaced by the hird version of the Berlin Wall in 1965. This version consisted of a concrete wall, supported by steel girders. The fourth version of the Berlin Wall, constructed from 1975 to 1980, was the most complicated and thorough. It consisted of concrete slabs reaching nearly 12-feet high (3.6 m) and 4-feet wide (1.2 m), plus it had a smooth pipe running across the top to hinder people from scaling the Wall. And tentatively approached the border and indeed found that the border guards were letting people cross. Very quickly, the Berlin Wall was inundated with people from both sides. Some began chipping at the Berlin Wall with hammers and chisels. There was an impromptu huge celebration along the Berlin Wall, with people hugging, kissing, singing, cheering, and crying. The Berlin Wall was eventually chipped away, into smaller pieces (some the size of a coin and others in big slabs). The pieces have become collectibles and are stored in both homes and museums. After the Berlin Wall came down, East and West Germany reunified into a single German state on October 3, 1990.

Psychopathy And Borderline Personality Disorder Essay

     INTRODUCTION Personality disorders constitute a major group in the classification of mental disorders. According to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, fourth edition, text revision (DSM-IV-TR),1 these conditions are defined by maladaptive personality characteristics beginning early in life that have consistent and serious effects on functioning. Borderline personality disorder (BPD) is frequently seen in clinical practice.2 Characterized by emotional turmoil and chronic suicidality (suicide ideation and attempts), this type of personality disorder presents some of the most difficult and troubling problems in all of psychiatry.   The majority of patients with BPD are seen in psychiatric clinics or in primary care. The keys to successful management include making an accurate diagnosis, maintaining a supportive relationship with the patient and establishing limited goals. Although BPD may persist for years, it does not last forever, and one can be reasonably optimistic that most patients will recover with time.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Psychotherapy can help speed up the recovery from BPD. The most effective forms of treatment have been developed by psychologists, and therefore when making a referral, physicians should consider a patient’s ability to pay for such therapy.   More research into the causes of BPD is needed, the results of which may help to develop evidence-based approaches to treatment that are practical and specifically designed for this challenging disorder.   THE EPIDEMIOLOGY OF BORDERLINE PERSONALITY DISORDER   Epidemiologic studies of personality disorders are at an early stage of development. Community surveys of adults have indicated that the prevalence of BPD is close to 1% (similar to that of schizophrenia).3,4 About 80% of patients receiving therapy for BPD are women,2 but sex differences are less striking in community samples.4 As is the case for personality disorders in general, BPD is associated with lower social class and lower levels of education.3,4   THE ETIOLOGY OF BORDERLINE PERSONALITY DISORDER We are only beginning to understand the causes of BPD. As with most mental disorders, no single factor explains its development, and multiple factors (biological, psychological and social) all play a role.   The biological factors in personality disorders consist of temperamental (inborn or heritable) characteristics that present in adulthood as stable personality traits: patterns of thought, affect and behaviour that characterize individuals and are stable over time.5 Heritable factors account for about half of the variability in virtually all traits that have been studied.6 Specifically, both affective instability6 and impulsivity7 have a heritable component of this magnitude, and studies involving twins have demonstrated that BPD itself shows a similar genetic influence.8 Also, family history studies have found that impulsive disorders such as antisocial personality and substance abuse are particularly common among firstdegree relatives of patients with BPD.9 Studies of central neurotransmitter activity have shown that impulsive traits, a major component of BPD, are associated with deficits in central serotonergic functioning.10,11 However, the biological correlates of affective instability are unknown, and no markers specific to the overall disorder have been identified.10 The psychological factors in BPD can be striking but are not consistent. BPD first presents clinically in adolescence, at a mean age of 18 years.12 Although many patients describe adversities such as family dysfunction as well as mood and impulsive symptoms that go back to childhood, longitudinal data are needed to determine the precise influence of early risk factors. 13 Reports of a high frequency of traumatic events during childhood in this population need to take into account community studies, which show extensive resilience following trauma, particularly for less severe adversities.13 The most careful studies have shown that a quarter of patients with BPD describe sexual abuse from a caretaker14 and that about a third report severe forms of abuse.15 However, although child abuse is clearly a risk factor, it is not specific to BPD.13 In general, adverse life events are not consistently pathogenic by themselves but, rather, produce sequelae in vulnerable populations.16 Social factors in BPD are suggested by indirect evidence.   Thus far, there have been no cross-cultural studies of BPD, although characteristic symptoms such as recurrent suicide attempts are less common in traditional societies, in which there is little change from one generation to the next, but are on the increase in modern societies and in societies undergoing rapid change.17   DIAGNOSIS AND SYMPTOMS OF BORDERLINE PERSONALITY DISORDER The term â€Å"borderline† is a misnomer, based on an old theory that this form of pathology lies on a border between psychosis and neurosis. Actually, BPD is a complex syndrome whose   central features are instability of mood, impulse control and interpersonal relationships.2 Box 1 presents the DSM-IV-TR1 criteria, reorganized in relation to these basic dimensions, as well as cognitive symptoms.   Since the DSM-IV-TR requires only 5 of 9 criteria to be present, making a diagnosis on this basis leads to heterogeneity; more precise research definitions have been developed that require high scores for all 3 dimensions.18 The affective symptoms in BPD involve rapid mood shifts, in which emotional states tend to last only a few hours.19 When affective instability is monitored with standardized instruments,20 emotions are found to be intense but reactive to external circumstances, with a strong tendency toward angry outbursts. Levels of affective instability are most predictive of suicide attempts.21 Impulsive symptoms include a wide range of behaviours and are central to diagnosis.22 The combination of affective instability with impulsivity in BPD23 helps account for a clinical presentation marked by chronic suicidality and by instability of interpersonal relationships.23 Finally, cognitive symptoms are also frequent. In one case series,24 about 40% of 50 patients with BPD had quasi-psychotic thoughts. In another series,25 27% of 92 patients experienced psychotic episodes.   In a third series,26 psychotic symptoms were found to predict self-harm in patients with personality disorders. BPD is common in practice. A recent study involving patients in an emergency department who had attempted suicide showed that 41% of those with a history of multiple suicide attempts met the criteria for BPD this disorder.27   However, many cases are also seen in primary care settings.   Data from a survey conducted in a US urban primary care practice indicated that BPD was present in 6.4% of a sample of 218 patients.28   Because of the wide range of symptoms seen in BPD that are also typical of other disorders (Table 1), such as mood and anxiety disorders, substance abuse and eating disorders,29 patients may be felt to have one of these conditions while their BPD goes undetected. The most common disorder associated with BPD is depression, but in BPD, symptoms are usually associated with mood instability rather than with the extended and continuous periods of lower mood seen in classic mood disorders.19 Also, because of characteristic mood swings, BPD is often mistaken for bipolar disorder.30 However, patients with BPD do not show continuously elevated mood but instead exhibit a pattern of rapid shifts in affect related to environmental events, with â€Å"high† periods that last for hours rather than for days or weeks.30 BPD may be mistaken for schizophrenia; however, instead of long-term psychotic symptoms, patients with BPD experience â€Å"micropsychotic† phenomena of short duration (lasting hours or at most a few days), auditory hallucinations without loss of insight (patients with schizophrenia do not recognize that a hallucination is imaginary, whereas patients with BPD do), paranoid trends and depersonalization states in which patients experience themselves or their environment as unreal.   24 Finally, patients with BPD are at increased risk of substance abuse, which forms part of the clinical picture of widespread impulsivity.2 To diagnose BPD in practice, clinicians must first establish whether a patient has the overall characteristics of a personality disorder described in the DSM-IV-TR;1 that is, long-term problems affecting cognition, mood, interpersonal functioning and impulse control that begin early in life and are associated with maladaptive personality traits, such as neuroticism (being easily prone to anxiety or depression, or both) or impulsivity. Personality disorders can often account better for the multiplicity and chronicity of symptoms than can alternative diagnoses such as mood or anxiety disorders. The next step is a personality assessment, which requires a good history. Although practitioners will be able to obtain needed information from most patients during a routine visit, they may also, with the patient’s consent, wish to speak to family members or friends.   The final step is to determine the category that best fits the clinical picture. To diagnose BPD, clinicians   need to establish that patterns of affective instability, impulsivity and unstable relationships have been consistent over time.   THE COURSE AND MANAGEMENT OF BORDERLINE PERSONALITY DISODERs Managing patients with BPD can be burdensome for clinicians because they may have to deal with repeated suicide threats and attempts over years. Also, patients with BPD do not easily respect boundaries and may become overly attached to their therapists.31 When practitioners fail to diagnose BPD, they may be at risk of becoming overinvolved with patients who suffer greatly but can be personally appealing to the physicians. Fortunately, most patients with BPD improve with time.32–34 About 75% will regain close to normal functioning by the age of 35 to 40 years, and 90% will recover by the age of 50.32 Unfortunately, about 1 in 10 patients eventually succeeds in committing suicide.35 However, this outcome is difficult to predict, and 90% of patients improve despite having threatened to end their lives on multiple occasions. The mechanism of recovery in BPD is not fully understood, but impulsivity generally decreases with age, and patients learn over time how to avoid the situations that give them the most trouble (e.g., intense love affairs), finding stable niches that provide the structure they need.35 BPD is a therapeutic challenge. A series of randomized controlled trials of pharmacotherapy and psychotherapy36–47,50,52–54 have been published; however, the trials had a number of defects, most particularly small samples, attrition and durations that were too short (usually 8–12 weeks) for a chronic disorder that can last for years. Finally, outcomes in these studies were generally measured by self-report and did not indicate whether the clinical picture had actually shown full remission. The pharmacologic treatment of BPD remains limited in scope. By and large, the result can be described as a mild degree of symptom relief. A number of agents, including low-dose atypical neuroleptics,38 specific serotonin reuptake inhibitors39,41–43 and mood stabilizers,44,45 all alleviate impulsive symptoms. However, antidepressants are much less effective for mood symptoms in BPD patients than in patients without a personality disorder.48 Benzodiazepines are not very useful in BPD and carry some danger of abuse.49   Thus, although several drugs â€Å"take the edge off† symptoms, they do not produce remission of BPD. Failure to understand this point has led to polypharmacy regimens, on the assumption that multiple drugs are needed to target all aspects of the disorder. The result is that many patients receive 4–5 agents — with all their attendant side effects12 — in the absence of evidence from clinical trials supporting the efficacy of such combinations. Future research may lead to the development of agents more specific to the symptoms seen in BPD.   The mainstay of treatment for BPD is still psychotherapy. Dialectical behaviour therapy is a form of cognitive behavioural therapy that targets affective instability and impulsivity, using group and individual sessions to teach patients how to regulate their emotions. This form of behaviour therapy has been shown to be effective in bringing suicidal behaviours under control within a year.50–53 However, whether this method is effective in the long term is unknown. There is evidence from a randomized controlled trial supporting the use of a modified form of psychoanalytic therapy in a day-treatment setting that also makes us of cognitive techniques.54   Unfortunately, these forms of psychotherapy for BPD are expensive in terms of resources and are not generally available. In practice, therapy tends to be practical and supportive.   Practitioners who manage these cases can also use educational materials for patients and their families.31   BORDERLINE PERSONALITY DISORDER AND SUICIDE   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The main problem that practitioners face in managing cases of BPD is chronic suicidality. Physicians in primary care settings are prepared to care for many patients with psychotic disorders but are likely to ask psychiatrists to manage patients who make repeated suicide threats and attempts, or to suggest hospital admission. However, there has been little research on the   Efectiveness of hospitalization for the treatment of BPD and no evidence that it prevents completion of suicide.55 Suicidality in BPD peaks when patients are in their early 20s, but completed suicide is most common after 3035 and usually occurs in patients who fail to recover after many attempts at treatment. In contrast, suicidal actions such as impulsive overdoses, most often seen in younger patients, do not usually carry a high short-term risk and function to communicate distress.56 Self-mutilating behaviours such as chronic cutting, often referred to as â€Å"suicidal,† are problematic but are not associated with suicidal intent and instead serve to regulate dysphoric emotional states.56 Practitioners should move beyond their concerns about these patients and instead concentrate on managing symptoms and the life problems that exacerbate suicidal thoughts or behaviours.   THEORIES OF BEHAVIOR INTENT   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Explaining and predicting consumer behavior has been the focus of research for many years. Marketing research seeks to find the answers as to why people make specific choices and how can these be predicted.   Are there commonalities among purchasing groups that can be identified as predictors?   The literature available is rich, as researchers try to understand the drive forces and motivators of the consumer. Hovland and Rosenberg (1960) proposed that attitude, acting as an intervening or moderating variable, consists of three components: cognition (knowledge, ability), affect (beliefs, opinions) and conation (behavior or intent of behavior) (Fishbein and Ajzen, 1975; Hansen, 1972).  Ã‚   In order for behavior intent to exist, the three components must be present (Fazio & Olsen, 2003). Fishbein and Ajzen (1975) proposed that attitude does not consist of three components, but is the moderating or intervening variable between cognition and the behavioral intent.   Attitude is derived from cognition, which in turn determines the intent to act or not (Ryan, 1982)   They proposed that researchers need to look at four categories: 1) knowledge, opinions and beliefs (cognition) about the object, 2) attitude (affect) towards the object, 3) behavior intent (conation) and 4) observed behavior to the object (Fishbein and   Ajzen, 1975). The specific action cannot be determined by the assessment of the knowledge of attitude toward an object but rather through the person’s intention to perform the act (Fishbein and Ajzen, 1975).   Previous studies have shown that people may have a positive attitude toward an object; however, the intention of behavior will be negative.  Ã‚   This was found in studies concerning blood donation, condom use, and racial prejudice (Ajzen and Fishbein, 2005; Burnkrant and Page, 1982; Fazio and Olson, 2003; Fishbein and Ajzen, 1975). Although many previous surveys showed favorable attitudes toward blood donation, condom use, and other races, their intention to give blood, use condoms or socialize with racial groups was negative.   Therefore, the intent of behavior of an individual must be determined, as well as his beliefs and attitude.   An in-depth discussion of each component will be addressed at a later point of this chapter.   MOA THEORY   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Related to the behavioral intent theories is the motivation-opportunity-ability theory of processing information.   Although this theory is in response to communication outcomes, the components are relative to this study.   According to the MOA theory, a person must have motivation, opportunity, and ability to process information in order to develop an attitude towards a brand, which can be enhanced through advertising cues (MacInnes et al., 1991).   Motivation in ad processing refers to the consumers’ willingness to allocate processing resources; whereas, opportunity is the amount of attention that is allocated without disruption; and ability is the â€Å"skills or proficiencies† or prior knowledge (MacInnes et al., 1991).   Each component of the MacInnes et al. model will be discussed in greater detail.   Cognition – Knowledge, Opinions and Beliefs The cognition or knowledge, opinions and beliefs component of the Fishbein and Ajzen model is considered to be the driving force of the model.   Beliefs about an object are formed through direct observation, with information received from outside sources or by inference processes (Fazio and Olsen, 2003; Fishbein and Ajzen, 1975).   The information or knowledge sought in belief formation in a specific situation can be influenced by the effort needed to obtain the information, the time constraint, and the likelihood that the information will be useful (Hansen, 1972).   Opportunity Opportunity pertains to those distractions or environmental factors which affect the consumers’ attention to information (Agho et al., 1993; MacInnes and Jaworski, 1991; Mooy and Robben, 2002).   Fazio and Olsen (2003) further proposed in their MODE or Motivation and Opportunity as DEterminants of attitude-behavior relationship that in order for deliberate processes such as activities used in belief formation, opportunity to engage in the deliberate process must first be available, otherwise, the consumer will resort to memory (Fazio & Olsen, 2003).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Time is reflective of opportunity as it influences consumer behavior and choices.   This finite and intangible resource is allocated by the consumer by choice, and is acquired by trading for another resource such as money (Bergadaa, 1990).   Therefore, consumers must choose how to use and manage their time.   Okada and Hoch (2004) found that consumers place a higher value on time spent if the outcome is positive and a lesser value if the experience is negative.   Consumers who have little time pressure will process the information in a leisurely fashion.   However, consumers who experience greater time pressure will generally use less time to process the information (Suri and Monroe, 2003).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Therefore, this study will propose that if the consumer has little time or reduced opportunity to expend on search and information gathering, he or she will be more likely to enlist the services of a realtor.   However, if the consumer is seeking monetary savings, and believes that time is less than the value of monetary costs, that consumer will participate in a For Sale by Owner transaction. Reference groups, friends, and family are important resources for the search of information, which is an integral part of buying or selling real estate.   This social network provides a means for sending and receiving information.   Word-of-mouth communication is important in shaping the attitudes and behaviors of the consumer.   â€Å"Personal word-of-mouth influence has a more decisive role in influencing behavior than advertising and other marketer dominated sources (Herr et al., 1991).   Brown and Reingen (1987) found that the stronger the relationship tie, the more influential the communication.   The weaker relationships, on the other hand, were instrumental in developing a bridge in the communication flow and in providing a means for referrals.   The opportunity to obtain information increases as the number of people a person comes into contact with increases.   Ability Ability comprises the second component of cognition.   Not only does the consumer need opportunity to process information, but he or she must have the skill set or ability to access and process the information (MacInnes et al., 1991; Mooy and Robben, 2002).   Any increase in ability can reduce the search process for information, as consumers will rely more on internal information than external information (Gibler and Nelson, 2003). The Internet has become a primary source for product research.   By using the Internet, consumers are afforded the ability to research a specific product, as well as compare products, attributes and prices.   â€Å"Retail businesses must struggle with facing an era of unprecedented consumer power obtained through Internet information† (Schoenbachler and Gordon, 2002).   This phenomenon would apply to the sale or purchase of a home as well (Muhanna, 2000).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Technology and the Internet have provided consumers access to information and products that were previously difficult, if not impossible to obtain, as well as have significantly influenced lowering of search costs.   Armed with this advantage, consumers are now afforded with possibilities of researching on the Internet and taking virtual tours, or viewing pictures and descriptions of available properties from the comfort of their own home.   The use of the Internet as one source of information will reduce the cost to the consumer during the search process (Baen, 1997; Baen and Guttery, 1997; Bakos, 1998; Seiler et al., 2001; Giaglis et al., 2002).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Ability is an intangible attribute that is often related to age and education.   As a person ages, or attains higher levels of education, the level of ability increases (Alba and Marmorstein, 1987; Huneke et al., 2004; Maheswaran and Sternthal, 1990).   Age contributes to the informal knowledge base while education contributes to the formal knowledge.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Experience is also often associated with the level of ability (Alba and Marmorstein, 1987; Huneke et al., 2004; Maheswaran and Sternthal, 1990).   Alba and Marmorstein (1987) studied the correlation of frequency or the number of times an event occurs, of experience to knowledge levels.  Ã‚   The greater the number of times a person was exposed to information or experience, the process of decision making was observed to be faster and less complicated.   Furthermore, â€Å"task performance is improved by different types of experiences† (Alba and Hutchinson, 1987).   Gibler and Nelson (2003) described that experienced home buyers remember which dimensions were useful in the past; on the other hand, inexperienced buyers ar e more susceptible to external influences, such as real estate agents, in determining their criteria for selection.   Therefore, the more homes a person has bought and/or sold, the more experience he/she has gained, and the less likely will that person enlist the services of a real estate agent.   The measurement of the levels of ability by the consumer can be ascertained by examining age, education level and prior experience.   â€Å"The greater the accumulation of experience and knowledge as one ages creates a reduced desire for additional information† (Gibler and Nelson, 2003).   Conation/Motivation – Dependent Variable   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Conation is defined as behavior or behavior intent.   Fishbein and Ajzen (1975) determined that conation is motivation or behavior intent.   Behavior only occurs if motivation is present to perform the behavior.   MacInnes et al. (1991) stated in their MOA theory that motivation is defined as the consumers’ desire or readiness to process the information.   Therefore, motivation can be defined as behavior intent.   Opportunity, measured by time and social contacts, and ability, measured by Internet access, education and experience (cognition) directly influence the level of motivation or behavior intent (conation).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Hovland and Rosenberg (1959) proposed that attitude consists of three elements:   cognition, affect and conation.   Fishbein and Ajzen (1975) argued, however, that attitude is affect, or the feelings toward a behavior.   â€Å"Attitudes reflect reasons for acting, and focus on what the decision maker does or can do† (Bagozzi et al., 2003)   For the purposes of this study, affect and attitude will be treated as the same and will be referred to as affect.   Affect is the result of cognition (Perugini and Bagozzi, 2001). Therefore, if behavior intent is a result of persuasion and persuasion is the result of cognition, then persuasion will act as a moderating variable.   As the persuasion increases positively and based upon previous studies, behavior intent will increase positively.   Media habits, or message exposure, will also moderate cognition-affect-behavior intent (MacInnes et al., 1991; Mooy and Rubben, 2003).   The higher the levels of exposure to television, radio, newspaper, and internet, the more frequency the messages will occur (Alba and Marmorstein, 1987).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Demographics have been routinely used in marketing to assist in segmenting markets based upon gender, age group, income, culture, marital status, education and household size.   These variables are often referred to as demographics; however, as pointed out by Art Weinstein (1994), many variables used for demography are often socioeconomic.   It is common in marketing research to refer to all of these variables as â€Å"demographics† (Weinstein, 1994).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Demographics are commonly used in business management due to the fact that they are easy to collect, group and analyze.   Furthermore, demographic variables typically have an interrelated correlation, which facilitates generalization and analysis of demographic data (Weinstein, 1994).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Household income and household size have a direct correlation with the monetary asset or value.   Consumers with lower incomes, or who have a large number of members in the household, are generally more price conscious.   Therefore, it is proposed that these consumers would prefer to participate in a For Sale by Owner transaction, foregoing the commissions paid to a real estate agent.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The purpose of this study is to identify those determinants which persuade a consumer to participate in a For Sale by Owner transaction.   Therefore, in order to identify these factors, the proposed model is an integration of the three major theoretical models discussed. Fishbein and Ajzen’s expectancy value model, and Hovland and Rosenberg’s tripartite theory of behavior, provides the cognition-affect-conation model and cognition-attitude-motivation.   Integrated with this model, is the MOA model as proposed by MacInnes, Moorman and Jaworski (1991), in which behavior is influenced by motivation, opportunity and ability.   Through literature, it has been determined that opportunity and ability are components of cognition, and motivation is influenced by cognition and moderated by affect.   METHODOLOGY Study Population   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The selected population for this study is the participants of a study conducted by Bluefield State College School of Business.   The purpose of the study was to collect raw data regarding the real estate buying and selling behavior of the consumer in the local area, which would be available for future analysis and interpretation.   Their sample is composed of participants over the age of 18 at a local annual exposition held in Mercer County, West Virginia.   Mercer County has a population of 61, 589 people with a median income of $28,130. In 2004, 30,207 housing units existed in the County, with 63.5% of the population living in the same house in 2000.   The homeownership rate was 76.8% in 2000 (US Census Bureau).   The attendance rate at this particular event was approximately 6000 people, approximately 10% of the population (Princeton Mercer County Chamber of Commerce, 2006).   Table 2 provides a summation of the demographics of Mercer County, West Virginia, in comparison to the State of West Virginia and United States averages.   Table 2. Demographic Data Mercer County, WV, State of West Virginia and United States (US Census Bureau, 2000) Demographic Mercer County West Virginia United States Population 62, 980 1,816,815 281,421,906 Median Household Income 28,120 32,967 43,318 Homeownership 76.8% 75.2% 66.2% For Sale By Owner N/A N/A 13% Living in the same home in 1995 and 2000 63.5% 63.3% 54.1% Housing units 30,207 866,944 122,671,734 High School Graduates 72.1% 75.2% 80.4% Bachelor’s Degree or above 13.8% 14.8% 24.4% In order to determine the appropriate sample size needed to complete this study, the following formula was used (Malhotra, 372); whereas the number of possible homeowners is 76.8% or 77% (US Census, 2000), Proportion of population that are homeowners (Ï€) = .70 Desired precision level (D) =.05 Confidence Level (CL) = 95% z value associated with 95% confidence level =1.96: Therefore, the number of samples needed:   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   n = Ï€(1-Ï€)z2/D2   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   n=.77(1-.77)(1.96)2/.052   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   n=.77(.23)(3.8416)/.25   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   n=272.13 or 272 samples needed   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The Bluefield State College study contains 356 usable surveys of individuals rather than households, which is in excess of the 272 samples required for this study.   Based upon attendance of 6,000, this represents .0593% or 6% of the attendees surveyed. Instrument   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The questionnaire developed consists of 42 questions including 35 opinion statements followed by 4-point Likert Scale responses and 8 demographic questions.   The Likert responses ranged from â€Å"mostly disagree† = 1 to â€Å"mostly agree† = 4.   Therefore, those who prefer to purchase or sell real estate without the assistance of a real estate agent will answer 1’s or mostly disagree.   These questions were drawn from Mitchell’s 1980 VALS; however, drawing from the works of Wells (1975) the constructs were changed to reflect product specific behavior. Opportunity H1  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   As the level of opportunity, measured by time and social contacts, increases, the behavior intent or motivation to buy or sell real estate without a professional agent will increase.      Two variables will be measured to identify the positive or negative level of opportunity.   As previously stated in the literature, opportunity is influenced by time and social contacts. Six opinion statements are used to identify respondents’ attitudes and opinions regarding time, or the lack of time. These statements are followed by four Lickert-scale responses to choose from with 1 = â€Å"mostly disagree† and 4 = â€Å"mostly agree†.   An example statement from the questionnaire is, â€Å"I spend more than 40 hours a week outside of the home†.   Those respondents, who disagree with this statement, will have more time available to search or sell a home.   Previous research cited has shown that reference groups are an important factor during the information search phase of the decision making process.   Therefore, the more people a consumer comes into contact with, the greater access to information.   The questionnaire contains eight opinion statements with 4-point Lickert-scale responses.   These statements represent the respondent’s network by asking questions in regards to school, community, church and family gatherings.   It is proposed that respondents who have a larger network of social contacts will have access to more information than those who choose not to participate in outside of the home activities.   Therefore, based upon the scale responses, 1=mostly disagree and 4=mostly agree, responses that are higher numbers, will most likely have a stronger social network.   For instance, the statement â€Å"I am active in my community†, reflects the activities of the respondent.   If the response is a 4, then the respondent has outside of the home social contacts and access to information. Affect H1a  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The direction of the level of affect will moderate the level of motivation to purchase or sell real estate without a professional agent.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In order to determine affect, or beliefs, the survey provided seven belief statements.   Respondents responded using a Lickert scale, with â€Å"1† = mostly disagree to â€Å"4† = mostly agree.   A sample statement from the questionnaire is â€Å"I believe real estate agents are a necessity when buying or selling a home†.   Responses with higher numbers will have a strong belief concerning real estate agents. Ability H2  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   As ability, measured by age, education and experience, increases, behavior intent or motivation to purchase or sell real estate without a professional agent will increase. Ability is measured by three variables:   experience, Internet access and education. In order to determine experience, the survey provides two questions and twelve opinion statements.   Experience can be measured by the number of homes purchased or sold in a lifetime.   Respondents to the questionnaire were asked to choose 1, 2, 3, or 4 or more.   As the number of homes purchased or sold in a lifetime increases, the level of experience increases.   The highest possible response will be a 4 and the lowest 1.   Furthermore, experience with a real estate agent is questioned.   If the respondent had used an agent to buy or sell his/her home the answer would be no, represented by the number 1.   If yes, then number 2. Internet presence, which is also an indicator of information access, is determined in the questionnaire by requesting the respondent to choose which email providers they use for email.   The more email providers would indicate a higher Internet usage of the respondent.   Also, based upon the provider, it can be determined if the respondent has high speed cable or DSL access.   Those respondents without email would respond to â€Å"none†. Information regarding education level will then be analyzed to determine correlation with the questions and statements regarding ability.   According to the literature cited, it is proposed that as the level of education, Internet access, and experience increases ability will increase, which will directly impact behavior intent. Motivation (Behavior Intent) The next twelve statements contained in the survey are opinion statements regarding the use of real estate agents, brokers and intentions of the respondent.   A sample statement from the questionnaire is â€Å"I would always use a real estate agent to help with purchasing a home†.   Respondents were given four Lickert-scale responses to choose from with 1 = â€Å"mostly disagree† and 4 = â€Å"mostly agree†.   Therefore, â€Å"3† and â€Å"4† would indicate the respondent’s intent to use a real estate agent, rather than for sale by owner. Media Habits H1b  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   An increase in the level of media habits will moderate the level of opportunity and its relationship with motivation to purchase or sell real estate without a professional agent..      Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   H2b  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   An increase in the level of media habits will moderate the level of ability and its relationship with   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Media habits, is also an indicator of information access.   Survey questions ask respondents the number of hours spent weekly watching television, listening to the radio, as well as newspapers read.   It is proposed that as the hours spent watching television or listening to the radio will moderate cognition and behavior intent.   As the number of hours exposed to media increases, the level of behavior intent will increase. Demographics H1c  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Demographics, measured by age, household income and household size will mediate the relationship between opportunity and motivation to purchase or sell real estate without a professional agent.      Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   H2c  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Demographics, measured by age, household income and household size will mediate the relationship between ability and motivation to purchase or sell real estate without a professional agent.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Demographic information regarding age, household income and household size will be collected.   This information will mediate cognition and behavior intent. Questions concerning gender, marital status and zip code will be used as descriptor or extraneous variables which are not statistically significant in this study. Data Analysis Descriptive Statistics   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The data that will be used in this study has been collected by the Bluefield State College School of Business; however, statistical analysis has not been completed.   Therefore, raw data obtained will be used for this study. The first step will be determining the descriptive statistics of the variables used in the study.   This will provide the mean, median and standard deviation of each survey question.   The aggregate mean will then be used for each variable.   The results of this analysis will then be used to conduct inferential statistic analysis. Inferential Statistics Inferential statistic analysis will be conducted in four steps.   Multiple regression analysis will be conducted to determine the affect of the moderating and mediating variables.   The dependent variable is dichotomous; therefore, logit analysis will be conducted, followed by model fit and significance testing. Due to the existence of several independent variables, mediators and moderators influencing the dependent variable, multiple regression analysis will be conducted to determine the relationships (Hair, 2003, p579).   The steps that will be taken to accomplish this, as recommended by Hair (2003, p579) are: assess the statistical significance of the overall regression model using the F statistic with a level of significance